Chapter 4 Early Childhood Flashcards

Question

Evaluating information processing theory

Answer 1

 Emphasizes that individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize information.  Focuses on cognitive structures like attention, perception, and memory stores.  Sees cognitive development as gradually increasing capacity for complex knowledge acquisition.  Excludes emotional, motivational, and social contexts from its core focus, often using controlled research environments. Theory of Mind (ToM) in Deaf and Hearing Children:  Research by Annalene van Staden (2010) shows a link between language ability (e.g., semantics, receptive vocabulary, syntax) and ToM.  Deaf children from hearing families (late signing or orally trained) tend to have delayed ToM compared to those from deaf families (native signing).  Deaf children of deaf parents, exposed to sign language from birth, perform better on false-belief tasks and have a more developed ToM. Enhancing Cognitive Development:  Environmental Influence: New and interesting situations lead to cognitive growth, as children adjust their cognitive structures (Piaget).  Social Interaction: Interaction with others helps children recognize differing perspectives, fostering cognitive development.  Play: Encourages exploration and practice of skills, contributing to brain development and new synapse formation.  Practice: Opportunities for practicing cognitive skills, such as through puzzles or building blocks, enhance mental abilities.  Transmission of Knowledge: Exposure to new knowledge and fostering a questioning attitude helps cognitive development.  Pre-primary Schooling: Effective in enhancing cognitive, social, and emotional development, particularly when quality teaching is involved.  Enrichment Programs: Beneficial for children from disadvantaged backgrounds, stimulating cognitive skills through various activities.  Physical Activity: Exercise, games, and sports contribute to cognitive development, including academic achievement, learning, and memory.

Answer 2

Language development is a crucial part of child development, as it supports communication, emotional expression, thinking, problem-solving, and relationship-building. It is also the foundation for literacy, which includes learning to read and write. During early childhood, toddlers quickly progress from two-word phrases to longer sentences. By age two, they can form sentences of four to five words, and by three, sentences can be up to eight words. However, simply counting words is not a reliable indicator of language development. Instead, researchers use Mean Length of Utterance (MLU), which measures the complexity of language by averaging the number of morphemes (smallest units of meaning, like "dog" or "eat") in a set of utterances. Between ages two and three, children begin transitioning from simple sentences to more complex language. This development follows certain processes that are common across most languages. Key milestones in language development include increased sentence complexity and improved communication skills.

Answer 3

Language development is a crucial part of child development, as it supports communication, emotional expression, thinking, problem-solving, and relationship-building. It is also the foundation for literacy, which includes learning to read and write. During early childhood, toddlers quickly progress from two-word phrases to longer sentences. By age two, they can form sentences of four to five words, and by three, sentences can be up to eight words. However, simply counting words is not a reliable indicator of language development. Instead, researchers use Mean Length of Utterance (MLU), which measures the complexity of language by averaging the number of morphemes (smallest units of meaning, like "dog" or "eat") in a set of utterances. Between ages two and three, children begin transitioning from simple sentences to more complex language. This development follows certain processes that are common across most languages. Key milestones in language development include increased sentence complexity and improved communication skills.

Answer 4

 Vocabulary Spurt: A rapid expansion of vocabulary occurs between 16 months and 2 years, followed by further growth from 3 to 6 years, during which children learn several new words daily.  Fast Mapping: Children can quickly grasp the approximate meaning of a word after hearing it once or twice. This process helps restructure their lexical domains by forming a quick hypothesis about the word's meaning.  Extended Mapping: This slower process involves refining a child's understanding of a word with increased usage and exposure, leading to a more complete grasp of its syntactic and semantic features.  Fast Mapping Mechanism: Though not fully understood, it appears that children use knowledge of word formation rules, context, and similar words to help them understand new terms. Nouns (object names) are easier to fast map than verbs (action words).  Vocabulary Immaturities: o Under extensions: Restricting the meaning of a word, e.g., using "juice" only for orange juice. o Overextensions: Using a word for a broader range of objects than correct, e.g., calling a horse a "dog" because the child hasn't learned the word "horse."

Answer 5

 Phonology: Refers to the study of speech sounds in language, including patterns and meanings. Children become perceptive to sounds during the preschool years and are capable of producing all vowel sounds and most consonants by age 3. They enjoy rhymes, songs, and creating silly words by changing sounds.  Morphology: The study of word structure and the smallest language unit that carries meaning (morphemes). Children learning languages like isiZulu and isiXhosa need to acquire rules for combining morphemes. In English, examples include adding –s for plurals, –ed for past tense, and –ing for continuous action.  Development of Morphological Knowledge: o By using more words in sentences, children begin to apply morphological rules, such as plurals, possessives, and verb endings (e.g., -s for third-person singular, -ed for past tense). o Overgeneralization: Children may make errors like "foots" instead of "feet" or "goed" instead of "went," indicating their learning of these rules. o Creating New Verbs: Children sometimes create new verbs from nouns, e.g., a 3-year-old saying "I'm lioning" while pretending to be a lion.

Answer 6

 Grammar and Syntax Development: o Early Childhood (Ages 3-4): Children start using basic grammatical rules like plurals, possessives, and past tense. They distinguish between pronouns like "I," "you," and "us" and can ask simple questions (e.g., what, where). Their sentences are typically short, simple, and declarative (e.g., "I want milk").  Sentence Complexity (Ages 4-5): o As MLU (Mean Length of Utterance) increases, children's sentences become more complex, incorporating negatives, questions, imperatives, and compound sentences (e.g., linked by "and," "but," "because"). o They can also string sentences together in longer narratives (e.g., "And then... And then..."). o Comprehension may still be immature, especially with commands that involve multiple steps (e.g., misunderstanding the sequence of tasks).  Adult-like Language (Ages 5-7): o By this stage, children's language becomes more adult-like, with longer sentences that include conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and multiple clauses, enabling them to converse effectively and tell stories. o While fluent and grammatically correct, they have not fully mastered aspects like the passive voice ("I was dressed by grandma") or conditional sentences ("If I were a fish..."). o Overgeneralization still occurs, such as adding -ed to all verbs in the past tense.

Answer 7

 Pragmatic Language: o Pragmatic language refers to using language effectively and appropriately in social contexts, following social conventions and etiquette (e.g., saying "please" and "thank you"). o Children learn to adapt their speech based on the context, addressing different people (siblings, parents, teachers) with varying tones and content.  Theory of Mind: o The development of pragmatic language is closely tied to theory of mind, the ability to understand others' emotions and beliefs. o Children who perform well in tasks like false-belief tests are also more active communicators, especially in pretend-play situations, as they understand how to adjust their language based on others' perspectives.  Improvement of Pronunciation and Grammar: o As children's pronunciation and grammar improve, they become more understandable, enabling reciprocal communication. o Three-year-olds become more talkative and try to clarify themselves when misunderstood.  Age-Related Changes: o Four-year-olds often use "parentese" (a higher-pitched speech) when talking to younger children. o Five-year-olds are better at adapting their language to suit the listener's perspective, using more polite language with adults and resolving disputes using words. They also can stay on topic in conversations, especially when they are interested and comfortable with their conversational partner. These developments show the increasing sophistication of children's social communication, as they learn not only the mechanics of language but also how to use it effectively in various social situations.

Answer 8

 Emergent Literacy: o Refers to the development of skills, knowledge, and attitudes essential for learning to read and write. o Includes oral language skills (vocabulary, syntax, narrative skills) and phonological skills (linking letters with sounds for decoding words). o Critical for school readiness; low literacy correlates with later issues like school dropout, poverty, and underemployment.  Key Skills for Emergent Literacy: o Letter Recognition: Ability to recognize different forms of letters (e.g., "a", "A"). o Grapheme-Phoneme Correspondence: Understanding how letters correspond to sounds (varies by language). o Word Recognition: Recognizing whole words instead of decoding them phonetically. o Word Meaning: Understanding the real-world reference of words (e.g., 'chair' as an object to sit on). o Comprehension and Interpretation: Requires automatic word recognition, a large vocabulary, memory capacity, and world knowledge.  Impact of Early Language Skills: o Phonological awareness, letter knowledge, and naming speed in preschool are linked to reading success in later grades. o A positive home environment is crucial for early language development.  Challenges in South Africa: o South African children underperform in literacy compared to other middle- income countries due to:  Literacy Environment: A lack of a reading culture; only 15% of parents in developing countries like South Africa provide cognitively stimulating materials.  Socio-economic Factors: Poverty, overcrowded living conditions, and high household duties negatively affect literacy performance.  School System: Issues include an overemphasis on children who already know certain literacy skills, low-quality teaching, and the prevalence of second or third languages in education.  Improving Literacy Competence: o Book Sharing: Encourages language development, emergent literacy, and reading achievement. Engaging in dialogue about book content increases vocabulary and comprehension. o Parent and Caregiver Roles:  Parents should speak to children regularly, follow their arguments, and engage in activities like shared reading, asking open-ended questions, and providing feedback.  Dialogic reading, where adults ask questions, expand on answers, and model language, significantly enhances children's language growth.  Training Programs for Parents and Teachers: o Training programs, such as those for dialogic reading, have shown to be effective in improving children's language and literacy outcomes. Techniques include:  Asking "what" questions, expanding on children’s responses, and providing positive feedback.  Encouraging a fun, interactive approach to reading that fosters language acquisition. These strategies, particularly dialogic reading, are a cost-effective means to address literacy deficits and improve educational outcomes for children, especially in underserved communities.

Answer 9

 Global Prevalence: Over 30 million deaf children exist worldwide (De Andrade, 2017). In South Africa, the prevalence of hearing impairment is estimated at 4 to 6 per 1,000 live births in the public healthcare sector (Maluleke et al., 2019).  Causes of Hearing Loss: o 50% to 60% of hearing loss in babies is genetically caused (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021). o 90% to 95% of deaf children are born to hearing parents (DesGeorges, 2016), with most genetic hearing impairments due to mutations during conception, rather than inheritance. o Non-genetic factors include diseases (e.g., meningitis, encephalitis), infections (e.g., measles, chickenpox), injuries, loud noises, and medications.  Language Development in Deaf Children: o Deaf children exposed to sign language from a young age acquire language in the same stages as hearing children, including "babbling" in sign language. o Deaf infants make the same developmental errors as hearing infants, at the same ages. o Language areas of the brain in deaf children develop similarly to those in hearing children.  Communication and Education: o Effective communication is critical for children's academic, social, and emotional development. o Early hearing detection and interventions (e.g., sign language, hearing aids, cochlear implants) can help children with hearing impairments achieve communication skills similar to their hearing peers (Maluleke et al., 2019).  Challenges in South Africa: o 90% of newborns in South Africa lack access to hearing tests, and families are often uninformed about paediatric hearing loss. o The average age of diagnosis for hearing loss in children is 31 months, which is well beyond the critical period for language development. o Early hearing screening is recommended by international organizations, such as the American Academy of Paediatrics, by one month of age.  Access to Hearing Aids: o In developing countries, financial constraints limit access to hearing aids, with only one in 40 people who may need them receiving them (De Andrade, 2017).

Answer 10

 Exposure to Media: o Children are exposed to various forms of media, including TV, radio, and electronic devices (e.g., computers, cell phones). o The term "screen time" refers to the amount of time children spend on devices like TV, video games, and other electronic screens (Canadian Paediatric Society, 2017).  Socioeconomic Status and Media Use: o Children from lower socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds tend to watch more TV due to fewer affordable entertainment options (Berk, 2019).  Criticisms of Media Effects on Cognitive Development: o Four main criticisms of television's impact on cognitive development: Displaced Time: TV viewing takes time away from more beneficial activities, such as reading or pretend play. Passivity: TV viewing is passive, potentially leading to inactivity. Shallow Information Processing: Rapid, short TV segments may result in shorter attention spans. Visual/Iconic View: TV may enhance visual processing but reduce verbal processing, affecting imagination and inference.  Research Findings: o Research on TV’s impact on cognitive development is complex; correlation does not prove causality (Hanson, 2017). o Key Findings:  Content Matters: Educational programming has positive long-term effects on children, while violent or purely entertaining TV can harm cognitive development.  Parenting Moderates Effects: Parents influence children's media impact by guiding content choices and co-viewing, improving engagement and learning.  Educational TV for Young Children: o Educational TV programs promote skills like literacy, numeracy, social awareness, and emotional development. o Well-designed programs for preschoolers can positively affect social skills, school readiness, and cognitive development (Morgan, 2019; Ou et al., 2020). 29  Negative Effects of Excessive Media Use: o Heavy TV usage, exposure to violent material, and media use before age two are detrimental. o A study found that excessive screen time in children (3-5 years old) without parental involvement is linked to lower white matter development in the brain, affecting cognitive and language skills (Hutton et al., 2019).  Benefits of Educational TV: o Well-constructed educational TV programs can foster creativity, problem- solving, self-acceptance, and positive attitudes toward others (Roberts, 2021; Watson et al., 2020).  Effects of Video Games: o Video games can improve spatial skills, memory, reasoning, and problem- solving, and can foster creativity and self-confidence (Milani et al., 2019; Polinski et al., 2021). o However, excessive gaming can lead to academic issues, confusion between reality and fantasy, social isolation, and aggression (Sălceanu, 2014; Tumbokon, 2020).  Recommendations for Healthy Media Use: o Limit screen time for children aged 2-6 to one hour of high-quality programming per day. o Create a family media plan and review it regularly. o Educate children about the benefits and risks of technology. o Use media as a resource, teaching healthy habits and media literacy. o Ensure media use doesn’t interfere with sleep or social relationships. o Encourage family interactions around media content to develop values and social skills. 30 o Avoid using media as an emotional pacifier. o Handle media mistakes with empathy and teachable moments, addressing issues like sexting or bullying as red flags.

Answer 11

 Poverty's Impact on Child Development: South Africa’s widespread poverty has significant effects on children’s developmental outcomes. The government must intervene to address these adversities.  Government’s Role in Early Childhood Development: The South African government’s Early Childhood Development Policy highlights six critical components for promoting optimal child development from conception to nine years of age: nutritional support, maternal health, child health, social services, support for caregivers, and early learning stimulation.  Brain Development in Early Childhood: Early childhood is crucial for establishing brain pathways that shape lifelong learning, and experiences with caregivers and group-based learning opportunities significantly influence early development.  Grade R and Pre-Grade R: Formal schooling begins at Grade 1 (ages 6-7). However, Pre-Grade R (ages 3-4) and Grade R (ages 5-6) are recommended for school readiness. Grade R was officially introduced in 2001, with a goal of universal access by 2010 and compulsory attendance by 2019.  Types of Early Childhood Education: Various types of early childhood education services exist, including child minders, day-care facilities, educare centres, nursery schools, and pre-primary schools, each offering different levels of care and education, with varying teacher qualifications.  Benefits of Preschool Education: Children attending quality preschool education are more likely to be on track in early literacy and numeracy skills. Quality early education improves educational outcomes and reduces the risk of failure, grade repetition, and school dropout, particularly among socially and economically disadvantaged children.  Quality of Early Education: Quality early education is key, not merely attending preschool. Factors like teacher training, curriculum choices, school management, and physical resources matter. Low-quality education perpetuates inequalities, and poorer children often have access to lower-quality programs.  Challenges in Early Childhood Education: Many children, especially in lower-income quintiles, do not participate in learning activities and lack home stimulation. Studies show poorer children are more likely to receive inferior early education.  Recommended Improvements: Improvements include better teaching quality, enhanced teacher training and qualifications, expanded access to high-quality early childhood education, better resources, and physical improvements at facilities (e.g., sanitation and feeding schemes).  Policy Challenges: The early childhood development policy-making process in post- apartheid South Africa has been criticized for being inconsistent, unplanned, and contradictory, which may negatively affect outcomes for children.

Answer 12

As children progress through the preschool years, their personalities become more defined and they develop greater social complexity. The following sections will explore various aspects of personality development in early childhood, including emotions, self-concept, and gender. Before delving into these topics, an overview of the key theories of personality development during this stage will be provided.

Answer 13

Freud's Phallic Stage Erikson's Psychosocial Theory Social Learning Perspective Social-Cognitive Development Big Five and Temperamental Traits Focus on Emotions and Self-Concept

Answer 14

Freud's theory views early childhood as the phallic stage, where personality foundations are laid. During this stage, children resolve the Oedipus or Electra complex and identify with the same-gender parent.

Answer 15

Erikson highlights the development of basic trust in infancy, followed by autonomy in the second and third years. From ages 3 to 6, children develop initiative, becoming resourceful and exploring their environment. Parental support is crucial, as excessive punishment or discouragement can lead to feelings of guilt.

Answer 16

Behaviour is shaped by external rewards, punishments, and role models. However, children can also be internally motivated by self-esteem, pride, and accomplishment.

Answer 17

Children learn complex concepts such as gender, race, ethnicity, and friendships. They develop schemas and learn to accept or reject certain ideas.

Answer 18

Personality development also involves the Big Five personality traits and temperamental traits, which influence how children interact with the world.

Answer 19

Early childhood personality development emphasizes emotional control, self-concept, and the development of gender and ethnic identity. These aspects will be the primary focus of further discussion.

Answer 20

Children's cognitive and social development leads to changes in their emotional experiences, making emotions like joy and sadness more varied and complex. Self-development contributes to the emergence of self-conscious emotions such as guilt, shame, and pride. Children become better at recognizing and controlling their own emotions and understanding others' feelings. Emotional development during early childhood is influenced by cultural factors, which shape children's understanding of emotions, appropriate emotional responses, and which emotions are valued or expressed more frequently in different cultures. While general patterns are described, individual differences should always be considered.

Answer 21

 Emotions as part of personality: Emotions are not just feelings but are key personality traits that help guide children’s behaviour, thinking, and moral judgment.  Emotional understanding is foundational: Recognizing and managing emotions, as well as being sensitive to others' feelings, is a core aspect of early childhood development.  Emotional vocabulary grows quickly: Between ages 2 and 4, children develop a larger emotional vocabulary. By age 4–5, they can label and differentiate emotions (e.g., happy, sad, angry) and talk about causes and effects.  Early theory of mind: Preschoolers begin to predict others’ behaviours based on emotional expressions (e.g., a happy child may share).  Helping behaviours: Children show empathy and can comfort others, e.g., by hugging a crying friend.  Cognitive-emotional links: Children understand that thoughts influence feelings and that people may react differently to the same situation.  Limits in understanding complex emotions: Preschoolers struggle to grasp mixed or conflicting emotions due to limited cognitive flexibility.  Family influence: Secure attachment and emotionally rich conversations at home enhance emotional understanding.  Social benefits: Children with better emotional knowledge tend to show more kindness, are more considerate, and are better accepted by peers.

Answer 22

Emotional Development in Early Childhood  Emotions become more varied and complex as children grow.  Children learn to express emotions spontaneously but are gradually taught emotional control through socialisation (e.g., when it's appropriate to show joy). Happiness  Expressed through actions like clapping, laughing, hugging.  Seen as a core aspect of psychological well-being.  Contributes positively to: o Creativity o Cognitive development o Emotional maturity o Social adjustment  Barriers to happiness include: o Troubled home life o Low socio-economic status o School-related issues o Poor peer relationships o Genetic influences  Unhappiness can lead to long-term emotional, cognitive, and behavioural problems.  Early identification and support are crucial. Fear  Common in early childhood due to difficulty distinguishing fantasy from reality.  Can be adaptive by protecting children from harm.  Fear may arise from: o Sudden stimuli o Unfamiliar environments o Separation from parents o Media exposure (e.g., scary news or shows)  Influenced by temperament, experience, age, and cultural context.  Parental support strategies: o Talk openly about fears o Gradual exposure o Role modelling o Empowering actions (e.g., turning on a nightlight) 35 o Avoidance of frightening media o Provide emotional reassurance South African study (Loxton, 2009a):  Average of 2.8 fears per child.  Common fears: wild animals (esp. snakes, lions), dark, nightmares, fantasy figures (e.g., ghosts, tokoloshe).  Parents tend to underestimate children's fears. Anxiety  Differs from fear: longer-lasting, future-oriented, and not tied to a specific immediate threat.  Signs in children: a) Shyness b) Sleep problems c) Physical complaints (e.g., stomach aches without medical cause) d) Crying easily  Linked to parental overprotection and high behavioural inhibition.  Persistent anxiety can interfere with functioning and psychological well-being. Nightmares  Begin around age 2; peak around age 10.  Common themes: monsters, being lost, being bullied.  Can be part of normal development, but frequent distressing nightmares may signal emotional problems. Anger  Triggered by social frustration or threats.  Influenced by: a) Genetics b) Parenting styles (e.g., inconsistent discipline) c) Family dysfunction and trauma 36  Expressed through aggression in young children.  Triggers include: a) Routine disruption (e.g., eating, dressing) b) Conflict over toys c) Physical discomfort

Answer 23

 Emergence of Self-Conscious Emotions: o By 18 months, children begin to show shame and embarrassment (e.g., lowering their head or covering their face). o By 2 years, children show jealousy (e.g., trying to interrupt parents hugging). o By 3 years, emotions like guilt, pride, and remorse appear, along with attempts to correct wrong actions.  Definition of Self-Conscious Emotions: o These emotions involve the self and require an awareness of others’ perspectives. o Examples include embarrassment, shame, guilt, envy, and pride.  Role in Self-Concept and Social Development: o As self-concept becomes more developed, children understand social norms and expectations better. o Self-conscious emotions become tied to self-evaluation, influencing how children judge their thoughts, actions, and behaviour.  Behavioural Influence: o These emotions guide moral and performance-related behaviour. o Children may avoid actions that result in negative emotions and repeat those that bring positive feelings like pride. o Guilt can encourage moral correction, while pride can motivate achievement.  Anger Management: o Children must also learn to control anger from a young age as part of emotional development.

Answer 24

 Definition of Empathy: o Empathy is the ability to understand another person's feelings and situation— essentially, to “put yourself in someone else’s shoes.”  Importance of Empathy: o Empathy is a crucial part of early development and has lasting benefits into adulthood. o It fosters tolerance, acceptance, and helps build secure relationships with peers and teachers. o It contributes to social harmony, lowers stress, and supports psychological well-being.  Development of Empathy: o Linked to the child’s growing self-awareness, language, and cognitive abilities. o As children develop, they can better recognise others’ emotions and express concern verbally (e.g., offering comfort or reassurance).  Influence of Parenting Styles: o Warm, supportive, and empathetic parenting encourages children to become empathetic themselves. o Cold or punitive parenting (often seen in abusive settings) inhibits empathy development, and children may mirror these behaviours in how they treat others.

Answer 25

Importance of Emotion Regulation  Essential for emotional, cognitive, and behavioural development.  Babies express emotions openly, but as children grow, they learn to regulate emotions due to socialisation and developing control strategies. Emotion Regulation Strategies in Early Childhood  Avoidance: e.g., putting a bike in the garage to prevent it from being stolen.  Sensory restriction: e.g., covering eyes or ears to block unpleasant stimuli.  Language strategies: e.g., self-soothing talk like “Mommy will be home soon.”  Cognitive strategies: e.g., trying not to think about something upsetting.  Masking emotions: hiding real feelings, e.g., pretending not to be hurt to avoid embarrassment.  Behavioural manipulation: showing certain emotions to achieve a goal, e.g., smiling when ill to be allowed to attend a party. Display Rules  Culturally learned guidelines on how and when to express emotions.  Display rules vary across cultures and genders. o E.g., boys are often discouraged from crying; girls receive comfort when they cry. o In some cultures, pride is praised; in others, humility is expected. Language and Emotion Knowledge  As language develops, children: o Label and describe emotions. o Interpret, predict, and influence others’ emotions. o E.g., comforting a sad friend, avoiding actions that might upset others. Consequences of Poor Emotion Regulation  Children who cannot manage frustration, anger, or worry: o Struggle with peer relationships. o May lose friends due to uncontrolled anger in social situations. o Tend to have difficulty adjusting socially and academically. Role of Parents  Emotion-coaching parents: o Help children identify and manage negative emotions. o Use nurturing, monitoring, and scaffolding approaches.  Emotion-dismissing parents: o Ignore, deny, or suppress negative emotions. o Their children tend to have poorer emotional regulation, less focused attention, and more behavioural issues.

Answer 26

Theoretical Views on Personality Development  Personality development in early childhood is tied to self-awareness, which begins in infancy.  The self-concept starts forming as children describe themselves physically, then emotionally and socially.  Categorical self develops: children can state their name, age, gender, possessions, skills, location, and relationships.  By 3.5 years, children begin to understand psychological characteristics, such as emotions and motives, though not yet abstract personality traits. What Are Emotions and Why Are They Important?  Emotions are internal responses to external stimuli.  They are key to interpersonal relationships, learning, self-regulation, and social functioning.  Emotions help children communicate, form relationships, and cope with challenges. Emotional Development of Preschoolers  Preschoolers develop emotion regulation strategies: avoidance, distraction, language use, masking.  They learn display rules (cultural norms about when/how to express emotions).  Their understanding of emotions improves peer relationships and academic success. Basic Emotions in Early Childhood a) Happiness: Shown through smiles and laughter, especially in play and achievement. b) Fear and Anxiety: Common fears include separation, dark, monsters, and injury. c) Anger: Expressed when goals are blocked; managing it is key for social development. Child with Excessive Fears  Fears (e.g., separation, dark, thunder, monsters) are developmentally normal.  Parents should respond with reassurance, structure, and gradual exposure, not punishment or dismissal. 41 Causes and Coping with Fear  Causes: imagination, lack of understanding, trauma, separation, and insecurity.  Parents can: a) Provide comfort and security. b) Encourage verbal expression of fears. c) Create predictable routines.  This fosters emotional security and resilience. Fear vs. Anxiety  Fear: Response to a specific threat.  Anxiety: General worry, not always linked to a clear danger.  Parents should be concerned if anxiety: o Interferes with daily functioning. o Is persistent, excessive, or disproportionate.  Causes include temperament, environment, and family dynamics. Nightmares  Nightmares are normal in early childhood, often linked to fears and vivid imagination.  They often reflect daily stressors or anxieties.  Parents should be concerned if: o Nightmares are frequent, intense, or cause sleep avoidance. o Child struggles to return to sleep or shows signs of trauma. Bedtime Fear (Sophia’s Case)  Establish a consistent bedtime routine.  Offer a comfort object (e.g., soft toy).  Validate fears, but also reassure safety.  Avoid scary content before bed; consider nightlights. Anger Expression (Julie’s Case)  The mother dismissing Julie’s emotion teaches her that anger is unacceptable.  Instead, she should: o Acknowledge emotion: “You look angry. What happened?” o Help Julie label, understand, and manage the emotion. Children’s Anger  Contributing factors: frustration, tiredness, lack of control, or feeling misunderstood.  Concern arises if anger is: o Frequent, intense, violent, or impairs relationships. o Signs of deeper emotional or behavioural challenges. Self-Conscious Emotions  Emotions like guilt, shame, pride, and embarrassment emerge.  These require self-awareness and understanding of social norms.  Supportive feedback encourages healthy self-evaluation. Emotional Expression Involving Others  Empathy starts with imitation in infancy and develops through understanding others’ feelings by age 2–3.  Empathy improves with language, perspective-taking, and emotional regulation.  Children show empathy by comforting or helping others. Emotion Regulation  Crucial for: o Social competence o Peer acceptance o Learning and focus  Strategies used: 1. Avoidance 2. Distraction 3. Language and cognitive coping 4. Masking emotions  Influencing factors: a) Cognitive development b) Parental style (emotion-coaching vs. emotion-dismissing) c) Cultural and gender norms

Answer 27

Definitions:  Self-concept: One’s understanding of who they are and what they can do.  Self-esteem: Personal evaluation of one’s characteristics (feeling good or bad about oneself).  These terms are often mistakenly used as synonyms.  Related terms: self-image, self-identity, and self-worth. Self-Esteem Is Influenced By: 1. Feeling loved, accepted, supported, and encouraged by others. 2. Personal characteristics and skills. 3. Self-acceptance, especially in comparison to others.

Answer 28

 Positive self-esteem: o Linked to self-acceptance, resilience, academic success, self-confidence, and social adjustment.  Negative self-esteem: o Associated with anxiety, poor school performance, and social difficulties.

Answer 29

 Begins in early childhood.  Preschoolers: o Form self-perceptions based on interactions and comparisons. o Have inflated self-esteem due to limited ability to evaluate specific competencies. o Believe they can do everything well—this supports their learning and initiative. o Focus on social acceptance ("People like me") and abilities ("I can do things").

Answer 30

 Preschoolers observe others but do not evaluate themselves based on comparisons.  Comparisons are used for: o Social purposes (e.g., "We have the same sandwiches"). o Information gathering (e.g., copying colours from a drawing).

Answer 31

 Develops early, sometimes as young as 12 months.  Preschoolers may feel indignant if treated unfairly (e.g., unequal distribution of sweets).

Answer 32

 Children’s self-definition varies across cultures.  Individualistic cultures (e.g., Western): o Emphasize personal goals, independence, self-reliance, and creativity in child- rearing. o Self-concept focuses more on individual skills.  Collectivistic (communal) cultures (e.g., African): o Emphasize community goals, interdependence, obedience, and conformity. o Self-concept focuses more on social acceptance and harmony with others. Influence of Culture:  Culture shapes which aspects of the self are emphasized in a child’s development.  In African communities: o Children are encouraged to interact with others and define themselves through relationships. o The concept of ubuntu ("a person is a person through other people") reflects this communal self-view.

Answer 33

 Cultural categories are not absolute: o Most societies have a blend of individualistic and collectivistic values. o Countries like South Africa contain diverse cultures, incorporating elements of both.  The individualism-collectivism distinction is helpful for understanding general cultural differences, not for rigid categorization.

Answer 34

Definitions:  Sex: Biological characteristics (e.g., reproductive organs, secondary sex traits).  Gender: Psychological, social, and cultural traits associated with being male or female.  These terms are often used interchangeably, but they refer to different aspects of identity. Importance of Gender in Development:  Gender plays a central role in a child's identity and development.  From birth, people begin to define children by gender ("Is it a boy or a girl) gender diff pg47

Answer 35

 Not all differences are innate: Cultural norms, expectations, and opportunities play a significant role.  Mathematics example: o Gender differences in maths are larger in unequal societies. o Where girls have equal access to education and opportunities, gender differences in maths disappear.  Aggression: o Boys show physical aggression. o Girls may show relational aggression (e.g., exclusion, gossip).  Brain studies (MRI) show no inherent differences in mathematical processing abilities between genders.

Answer 36

 Gender differences found in studies reflect average trends, not individual performance.  Stereotypes: Oversimplified beliefs about gender roles that may not be accurate.  Stereotyping continues to influence expectations and roles, despite efforts to eliminate it.

Answer 37

Definition of Gender Role:  Gender role: The set of behaviour patterns and attitudes considered appropriate or typical for males or females in a specific society. Three Processes in Gender-Role Development: Acquisition of Gender Identity:  Gender identity: The child's understanding of themselves as male or female.  Ages 2.5–3 years: Children can correctly label themselves as boys or girls, but they don't yet grasp gender constancy (the understanding that gender doesn't change despite external factors, like clothing).  Ages 5–7 years: Children realize that gender remains constant despite superficial changes. They enter the school phase with a stable gender identity. Development of Gender Stereotypes:  After identifying as boys or girls, preschoolers start to recognize gender stereotypes, such as certain toys, colours, or careers being linked to specific genders (e.g., pink for girls, blue for boys).  Gender stereotypes become more rigid after age 6, especially once gender constancy is formed.  Younger children see gender stereotypes as absolute rules (e.g., boys can't be ballet dancers, girls can't play soccer).  These rigid views tend to soften during adolescence. Development of Gender-Typed Behaviour:  Gender-typed behaviour emerges early, with children demonstrating typical gender behaviours (e.g., boys playing with trucks, girls with dolls).  Children also show a preference for same-gender playmates.  This gender segregation increases in middle childhood, with boys and girls forming separate groups.

Answer 38

Biological Theories Psychological Theories

Answer 39

 Chromosomes and Hormones: Gender differences are believed to begin at conception (XX for females, XY for males). Hormones like testosterone influence brain development, leading to gender-related behaviour’s, such as aggression and dominance, more common in males.  Brain Differences: Males and females have structural differences in their brains. Males tend to have more grey matter, while females have more white matter, though these differences are not fully understood in terms of behaviour.  Prenatal Hormones: Excessive exposure to hormones can lead to the feminization of males or masculinization of females.

Answer 40

 Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud): Gender-role development occurs during the phallic phase (ages 3-6) when children experience unconscious feelings for the opposite- gender parent. The conflict is resolved by identifying with the same-gender parent. This theory has received limited empirical support and is mostly seen as historically significant.  Social Learning Theory: Gender roles are learned through reinforcement (rewarding gender-appropriate behaviour) and observation (imitating others). Children are treated differently based on their gender by parents, and this affects behaviour. Peer groups and media also reinforce gender stereotypes.  Cognitive Theories: Focus on how children develop an understanding of gender and their own gender identity. o Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg): Children acquire gender roles after understanding gender identity. Gender development progresses through three stages: gender identity (around age 3), gender stability (age 4), and gender constancy (ages 5-7). o Gender Schema Theory: Children organize their social world by developing gender schemas (mental structures) based on gender-specific behaviour’s. Children actively seek gender-appropriate knowledge to fit into their gender schema, starting at ages 2-3.

Answer 41

 Cultural Context and Child Development: Cultural context plays a significant role in the early development of children, influencing all aspects of their growth. Understanding children’s development is best done through their everyday cultural practices, interactions, and relationships within their ecological settings.  Race vs. Ethnicity: Race refers to biological factors, while ethnicity refers to shared cultural characteristics such as language, religion, customs, and history. There is inconsistency in how race and ethnicity are defined across studies and countries.  Early Awareness of Race and Ethnicity: Children begin noticing their surroundings and may observe cultural, racial, and ethnic cues from an early age. The formation of racial self-concept and ethnic identity develops as children grow. They also learn how to identify with their ethnic group through experiences like family interactions, stories, or recognizing physical features tied to race and ethnicity.

Answer 42

a) Ethnic knowledge: Children learn the distinguishing features of their ethnic b) group. Ethnic self-identification: Children categorize themselves as members of their ethnic group c) d) e) Ethnic constancy: Children understand that ethnicity is a permanent feature. Ethnic role behaviour’s: Children engage in behaviour’s reflecting their ethnic group. Ethnic feelings and preferences: Children develop feelings about belonging to their ethnic group.  Role of Family and Social Environment: The family, parents, and other adults play a significant role in shaping children's ethnic identity by teaching them about their culture, instilling pride, and encouraging identification with their group.  Lack of Research on Children's Racial and Ethnic Awareness: There is limited research on children’s awareness of racial and ethnic differences, though studies typically use dolls or drawings to measure preferences. Children’s understanding of racial and ethnic differences becomes clearer by the age of four.  Studies on Racial Preferences: Some studies show children of minority races may not show a preference for their own race, while children of the majority race tend to prefer people who resemble themselves. For example, studies in South Africa reveal that children are sensitive to race and may show preferences based on social status, even in a racially diverse environment.

Answer 43

Social development in the preschool years involves changes in preschoolers' interaction and relationships with others. Family relationships continue to play a crucial role, but from the age of two, peers and other persons become increasingly influential.

Answer 44

Defining a family is complex due to the variety of family systems in society. Common systems include the nuclear family (father, mother, children) and extended family (including grandparents and other relatives). In South Africa, other family types exist, such as reconstituted families, same-gender parent families, foster and adopted families, single-parent households, grandparent-headed households, and child-headed households. These different family structures can impact children’s development in various ways. Regardless of the family type, children typically have primary caregivers and other family members like grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, and siblings, all of whom contribute to the child's development. This section focuses on parent/caregiver relationships, particularly the role of fathers, along with the impact of grandparents and sibling relationships.

Answer 45

 By 12 months, infants form clear attachments to primary caregivers, with these bonds evolving as children grow.  By ages 2-3, attachment behaviour’s become less visible, with children able to manage separations and understand caregiver explanations.  The preschooler's attachment becomes a "goal-corrected partnership," where they understand their parents exist even when apart.  Secure attachment leads to better emotional control, social competence, and confidence in exploration.  Criticism of attachment theory includes its lack of consideration for social class, gender, ethnicity, and culture.  Attachment quality influences development, but it doesn't always prevent negative outcomes.  South African experts stress the importance of supporting positive parent-child relationships in early intervention models.

Answer 46

 Parenting styles affect children’s development, particularly as children seek more independence.  Diana Baumrind’s dimensions of parenting include warmth and nurturance, consistent control, expectations, and communication.  Authoritative parenting is considered most beneficial, with high acceptance, consistent rules, and good communication.  Other styles include: o Authoritarian: High control, low warmth and communication, leading to negative outcomes. o Permissive: High warmth but low control, leading to impulsive and dependent behaviour. o Uninvolved: Emotionally detached, leading to developmental disruptions.  Parenting styles’ impact on children is influenced by factors like culture, socio- economic status, and the child’s personality.  Cultural considerations: Western cultures often value authoritative parenting, while in traditional societies, children are expected to obey without question.  In South Africa, authoritative parenting is common across ethnic groups, but father involvement differs by culture. Black African fathers often have lower involvement compared to white fathers, influenced by historical, cultural, and socio-economic factors. pg 55

Answer 47

 Studies show variations in parenting based on ethnic and gendered roles within families.  Despite progress, challenges like poverty and social issues impact parenting styles in South Africa, leading to harsher, punitive approaches in some families.  The shift toward democratic parenting is complicated by a lack of positive discipline alternatives in under-resourced communities.

Answer 48

 Changing Role of Fathers: Historically, fathers were seen mainly as breadwinners and patriarchs, but this viewpoint shifted in the second half of the 20th century. Research now emphasizes the importance of involved and caring fathers in child development.  Fathers' Impact on Children: Fathers significantly impact children's development in mental health, cognitive skills (including verbal skills, intellectual functioning, and academic achievement), and social competence. Their influence extends to emotional control, friendships, humour, and encouraging risk-taking.  Modelling Behaviour: Fathers serve as key role models, especially for their sons, influencing their behaviour and gender-role characteristics. A positive father figure also helps daughters develop confidence and challenge gender discrimination.  Quality Fathering: Active father involvement is defined by engagement (direct interaction), accessibility (being available), and responsibility (providing resources). Involvement leads to close, affectionate relationships, and balanced parenting, with a strong impact on children's well-being.  Father Absence: Father absence, either physical or emotional, has negative effects on children. In South Africa, over 60% of biological fathers do not live with their children, contributing to one of the highest father absenteeism rates globally. However, father absence does not always mean a lack of involvement.  Reasons for Father Absence: Factors contributing to father absence in South Africa include HIV/AIDS, migrant labour, poverty, single mothers managing without the father, and cultural assumptions. Stereotypes also portray fathers as financially irresponsible or uninvolved.  Importance of Recognizing Fathers' Potential: Fathers, despite challenges, represent untapped resources for children's well-being. In difficult circumstances, good fathering becomes even more crucial for children's development.

Answer 49

 Importance of Grandparents in South Africa: Grandparents play a significant role in South African families, particularly in caregiving. Around 5% of children live with one or both grandparents, with higher percentages in Limpopo and Eastern Cape (close to 10%).  Reasons for Grandparent Caregiving: Various factors contribute to the rise of grandparents as primary caregivers, including mothers' increased participation in the workforce, father absence, health issues (especially due to HIV/AIDS), substance abuse, divorce, and parents' inability to care for children.  Grandmothers' Role: Grandmothers make up the majority of grandparent caregivers, but grandfathers also play a crucial role, although less is documented about their involvement. Grandfathers often report being more affectionate with their grandchildren than with their own children.  Involvement and Affection: Some grandparents take on a parental role, while others maintain a more distant relationship due to geographical reasons. Despite this, affection between grandchildren and grandparents typically remains strong.  Psychological Well-being: Studies show that maternal grandfathers may have a more significant impact on adolescents' psychological well-being than paternal grandfathers. This may be due to greater involvement, often encouraged by their daughters.  Grandparents' Positive Contributions: Grandparents transmit values, provide wisdom, and offer stability and security in grandchildren's lives. They also serve as support systems during crises such as divorce, mental illness, or the death of a parent.  Comparable Outcomes: In some cases, when grandparents are primary caregivers, grandchildren's behaviour and academic performance are similar to those of children raised by their parents, despite challenges related to finances and age.  Potential Negative Influence: Some grandparents may foster maladaptive behaviour in grandchildren through poor role modelling (e.g., smoking, alcohol use). Additionally, some may spoil their grandchildren, leading to a lack of discipline. However, these issues are often linked to the children's traumatic experiences in their parental homes.  Challenges for Grandparents: Grandparents, especially in rural areas, may be ill- equipped to handle contemporary parenting challenges, including new parenting practices, child development, and mental health issues. Traditional child-rearing practices are increasingly outdated, highlighting the need for grandparents to stay informed.

Answer 50

 Longevity and Importance of Sibling Relationships: Sibling relationships are significant as they tend to last longer than other relationships in a person's lifetime. Most children globally, including in South Africa, have at least one sibling.  Key Functions of Sibling Relationships: o Emotional Support: Siblings provide emotional comfort and support to each other, often confiding in one another more than in parents. They also protect each other during stressful situations. o Caregiving: Older siblings often help care for younger ones, especially in cultures where caregiving by older children is part of the social system (e.g., Africa, Asia, Oceania, and South America). This includes roles like feeding, comforting, and disciplining. o Teaching: Older siblings teach younger siblings practical life skills (e.g., using a TV remote, playing games) and prepare them for school. They also pass on cultural values and household chores. o Social Experience: Siblings provide important social interactions that help children develop social cognitive skills like perspective-taking, conflict resolution, and negotiation. Positive sibling relationships correlate with better peer relationships.

Answer 51

o Infants: Develop attachments to their siblings. o Preschool Age (2-4 years): Sibling conflicts are frequent, typically revolving around possessions (e.g., toys). o Older Children (5-7 years): Conflicts decrease, and sibling interactions become more constructive. o Conflicts are viewed as opportunities for social learning, teaching children how to disagree and compromise.  Parental Intervention: o Parents are crucial in managing sibling conflicts. When left unchecked, conflicts can lead to behavioural problems later. Parents can teach children how to resolve disputes constructively by guiding them to express their views and reason together. o Sibling relationships improve when parents treat all children equally and model positive conflict resolution. Parental harmony also fosters better sibling relationships.  Impact of a New Sibling: The birth of a new sibling can cause distress in older children, leading to behaviour’s like withdrawal or regressive actions to regain attention. However, this distress can be minimized if parents stay responsive and involve the older child in activities.

Answer 52

The development of friendships with peers is a crucial aspect of preschoolers' social growth. As children become more self-aware and improve their communication skills, they also enhance their ability to interact with others. Early peer acceptance is an important predictor of later peer relationships, with children who struggle to make friends in preschool often facing difficulties in peer interactions later in life. It is unclear whether early peer problems directly cause later challenges, or if both are linked to other risk factors such as home trauma or behavioural issues like aggression or bullying. However, having friends in early childhood seems to protect against peer rejection, which is associated with later educational and psychological problems. The chapter also highlights the role of play and the emergence of aggressive and prosocial behaviour in early peer interactions.

Answer 53

Play is vital for children's development in early childhood, often referred to as the "play years." It supports physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth. Key benefits include:  Physical Play: Enhances motor skills and brain development.  Cognitive Development: Improves cognitive functions, language, creativity, and visual-spatial skills.  Social Skills: Encourages interaction, sharing, negotiation, and understanding others' perspectives.  Exploration: Fosters curiosity and environmental exploration.  Language Skills: Strengthens vocabulary and literacy through discussions and role- playing.  Therapeutic Value: Helps children cope with anxieties and conflicts, often used in play therapy.

Answer 54

 Functional Play: Repetitive activities like jumping or moving toys, which develop motor skills.  Constructive Play: Manipulating objects to create something, fostering fine motor and cognitive skills.  Social Pretend Play: Involves imagination and role-playing, developing cognitive, communication, and social skills.  Games with Rules: Encourage cognitive development and social understanding. Mildred Parten's study (1932) suggested a developmental progression in play, from solitary to parallel and finally to cooperative play, which involves shared interaction and collaboration. However, solitary play is normal for preschoolers unless it becomes extreme. Imaginary friends are common in early childhood, appearing in about 50% of children. These imaginary companions foster creativity, social awareness, and abstract thinking. While some believe children with imaginary friends are less sociable, research suggests that these children have advantages, such as better social skills and vocabulary. Toys and play materials are crucial for cognitive, social, and creative development. Simple, open-ended toys like blocks or dolls tend to foster better developmental outcomes compared to commercial educational toys. Play materials should encourage imagination, interaction, and physical activity. Research suggests that less is often more, as fewer toys lead to more focused, creative play. Cultural differences influence play styles. Children in collectivist cultures tend to engage in cooperative and dramatic play in large groups, while those in individualistic cultures often prefer smaller groups and competitive play. Cultural beliefs about the value of play also shape how it is encouraged, with some cultures prioritizing cognitive and social benefits over entertainment.

Answer 55

Aggressive behaviour in children can manifest in different ways and typically falls into two categories: 1. 2. Instrumental Aggression: This type of aggression is used as a means to achieve something. Children might shout, push, or attack others to obtain a desired object or privilege, without a deliberate intention to harm. For example, a child might push another to get a toy back. This form of aggression tends to diminish as children grow older and develop better emotional control and the ability to compromise. Hostile Aggression: This type is aimed at deliberately hurting another person, either physically or emotionally. It is often reactive, meaning it occurs in response to something that triggers the aggression. For instance, hitting or insulting someone is an example of hostile aggression. It typically increases between the ages of four and seven, as children become better able to recognize the intentions of others and retaliate accordingly.

Answer 56

1. Physical Aggression: Harming others through physical actions like hitting, kicking, or pushing. 2. Verbal Aggression: Using words to harm others, such as name-calling or threats. 3. Relational Aggression: Harming others' social standing or relationships, often through gossip or social exclusion. In early childhood, aggression typically emerges between one and two years of age when children start interacting more with peers. Disputes over toys or space can lead to aggression, and children often learn which behaviours are successful in obtaining desired outcomes. Over time, children may adjust their behaviour’s based on these experiences, becoming more prosocial (e.g., sharing or offering alternatives) or more aggressive depending on what has been successful. While occasional aggression is normal during early childhood, excessive aggression can have long-term consequences. It may lead to difficulties in peer relationships, problems at school, or the development of antisocial behaviour’s. Studies show that aggressive tendencies in childhood can be stable over time, potentially leading to issues such as mental health problems, criminal behaviour, or substance dependence in adulthood. However, not all aggressive children will develop into aggressive adults. Understanding the causes and methods to control aggression is essential for promoting healthier emotional and social development in children.

Answer 57

a) Instinct Theories: o Aggression is viewed as an inherent part of human evolution, similar to hunger or thirst. However, modern psychologists reject the idea that aggression is purely instinctive, given the significant individual and cultural differences in aggressive behaviour. b) Biological Factors: o Aggression is influenced by certain brain areas (e.g., hypothalamus, amygdala), hormones like testosterone, genetic factors, and substances like drugs and alcohol. o Lesions or changes in brain areas such as the prefrontal cortex and amygdala can remove normal inhibitions, resulting in uncontrolled aggression. o Studies also show a biological response to aggression from a young age, indicating the role of neurobiology in aggressive behaviour. c) Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: o Proposed by Dollard et al. (1939), it suggests that aggression is a response to frustration when a goal is blocked. o Berkowitz (1989) reformulated it, emphasizing that frustration leads to aggression depending on the emotional importance of the blocked goal. d) Cognitive Factors: o Children's interpretations of social situations and their assumptions about aggression influence their tendency to act aggressively. o Aggressive children often misinterpret ambiguous situations as hostile and may not recognize the consequences of their aggression. e) Social Factors: o Social learning theory suggests that children learn aggressive behaviour through reinforcement and imitation of aggressive models (e.g., parents, media). o Parenting styles (e.g., cold, hostile, permissive) and exposure to community violence influence children's aggression. Negative parenting practices and modelling of aggression can lead to more aggressive behaviour in children. o Media violence (e.g., violent TV shows, video games) can also contribute to aggressive behaviour by desensitizing children, increasing their appetite for violent content, and lowering empathy for victims.

Answer 58

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) Parents as role models: Parents should avoid aggressive interaction styles themselves, as they are powerful models for their children. Firmness: Parents should remain firm and not give in to aggressive behaviour. Induction over power assertion: Parents should focus on reasoning, explaining, and setting limits, instead of using physical punishment or threats. Change children's cognition: Explain the harm caused by aggression to help children understand the consequences. Encourage prosocial behaviour: Encourage children to engage in positive, cooperative actions. Investigate causes of aggression: Understand the reasons behind the child’s aggression to address the root cause. Encourage verbal expression: Provide opportunities for children to express their feelings appropriately. Monitor TV viewing: Limit exposure to violent content, watch with children, and discuss the content with them. Evaluate video games: Assess games for violence or harmful behaviour, focusing on the portrayal of aggression, rewards for violence, and the absence of non-violent solutions. 10) Seek professional help: If aggression persists, seek advice from a professional.

Answer 59

 Prosocial behaviour: Voluntary actions intended to benefit others, including cooperation (working together for a common goal) and altruism (helping others without expecting personal gain).  Empathy vs Sympathy: Empathy drives altruistic behaviour (putting oneself in others' shoes), while sympathy is more emotionally intense (sorrow or pity).  Altruistic behaviours in young children: Children aged 2-3 show empathy and altruism, such as helping, sharing, and comforting others.  Development of prosocial behaviour: Some behaviours like turn-taking and helpfulness increase with age, while others like comforting are more common in younger children.  Long-term impact: Prosocial behaviour in preschool years tends to continue into adulthood.  Emotional regulation: Children who regulate their emotions well tend to show more empathy and altruism.  Parental influence: Parents who create a warm environment, set clear rules, and model altruism help promote prosocial behaviour in children.  Genetic factors: Research suggests genetics play a role in prosocial behaviour.  Situational factors: Children are more likely to act altruistically when: o They know the person in need (friend or family). o They feel competent and confident in their ability to help. o They are in a positive emotional state (happy or successful).  Young children’s limitations on altruism: They are more likely to help if the sacrifice is minimal (e.g., sharing disliked food).  Benefits to the helper: Prosocial behaviour, such as altruism, is associated with improved cognitive abilities, problem-solving skills, and academic performance. table pg 66

Answer 60

 Morality: Refers to the principles that help individuals distinguish right from wrong and guide behaviour.  Early views on morality: Initially, children were considered pre-moral, but recent research shows that moral development begins around age 2.  Moral development in young children: o Signs at age 2: Children start understanding behaviours as good or bad and feel distress (shame or guilt) when they violate standards. They also begin to anticipate disapproval. o Age 3: Children can distinguish between intentional and accidental harmful actions. o Age 4: Children begin distinguishing between truth and lies. o Age 5: Children understand moral rules (e.g., lying, stealing) and concepts like fairness and justice.

Answer 61

o Emergence: Children can lie as early as age 2, but their cognitive and social skills are still developing, so they don’t fully grasp the concept of truth. o Early lies: Often humorous and not effective (e.g., blaming the dog for drawing on the wall). o Ages 4-5: Lying becomes more similar to adults’ motivations (e.g., avoiding punishment, protecting a friend, boosting self-esteem). o Developmental perspective: Lying in young children is normal and a sign of developing cognitive skills, including the awareness that others have different thoughts and feelings (theory of mind). o Persistent lying: If lying is persistent and affects daily functioning, professional help may be needed.  Strategies for teaching honesty: o Set an example: Parents should model honesty, as children imitate their caregivers. o Stay calm: Parents should not overreact when a lie is discovered, as this may increase lying out of fear of punishment. o Separate behaviour from the child: Address the lying behaviour, not the child’s character, to avoid negative labels that affect self-esteem. o Positive reinforcement: Encourage honesty by acknowledging truthful behaviour and emphasizing its importance in family and relationships. o Confront the lie: Parents should understand the underlying reasons for the lie and discuss alternative behaviours to promote honesty.

Chapter 4 Early Childhood Flashcards

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