Chapter 6 Adolescence

Question 1

WHAT IS ADOLESCENCE?

Answer 1

Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. Therefore,
it can be regarded as a developmental bridge between being a child and becoming an
adult. However, demarcating adolescence by age has led to various stance.

Question 2

Demarcating adolescence

Answer 2

 Adolescence has not always been seen as a distinct life stage.
 Before the 19th century, children lacked formal education, married young, and
quickly took on adult roles.
 The rise of formal schooling and children’s rights led to adolescence being recognized
as a transitional period from childhood to adulthood.
 Due to research and globalisation (the process of increased international interaction
and cultural exchange), most countries now acknowledge adolescence as an important
life stage.
 The age range for adolescence varies: from 10 to 24 years, sometimes broken into
early, middle, and late adolescence.
o Early: 10-14
o Middle: 15-18
o Late: 19-24
 More accurate than age are physical, psychological, and sociocultural indicators to
define adolescence.
 It begins with puberty and ends with meeting societal norms like independence, self-
reliance, and starting a career.
 In South Africa, adolescence legally ends at 18, though this is often not a reliable
indicator.
 There are exceptions to legal definitions (e.g., a 12-year-old girl can get an abortion
without parental consent).
 Contrary to popular belief, adolescents today mature more slowly, taking longer to
take on adult responsibilities like working or driving.
 A possible cause is adolescents’ preference for spending more time online.
 The book follows the view that adolescence spans from approximately 12 to 18 years.

Question 3

A stormy phase

Answer 3

 There is vagueness about where adolescence begins and ends, and differing views on
its psychological characteristics.
 One common view is that adolescence is a time of conflict, moodiness, and high-risk
behaviours, often referred to as a “stormy period” with biological roots.
 This negative perspective is ancient—Socrates described adolescents as rebellious,
disrespectful, lazy, and rude.
 However, others believe adolescents today are unfairly judged, and that they are
actually more informed, idealistic, open-minded, and aware of human rights than
previous generations.
 Most psychologists now adopt a balanced perspective:
o Adolescence is a normal part of development with significant biological and
psychosocial changes.
o Most adolescents are well-adjusted and have values similar to their parents.
o Some do struggle—especially those from dysfunctional families.
o Adolescence is the ‘weak link’ where difficulties (if any) are most likely to
occur.
o Conflicts with parents are often not as serious as they seem.
 Adolescence is a universal phenomenon, but cultural experiences differ:
o In traditional cultures, there’s more conformity and support from family and
community, resulting in less storm and stress—but this may reduce
independence and creativity.
o In Western cultures, there’s more individuality and creativity, but also more
risk-taking behaviour.

Question 4

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Answer 4

Various important physical changes take place during adolescence. These include changes in
height, body mass, muscles, brain development, and sexual maturation. These changes will
be discussed next.
Adolescent growth spurt
 Early adolescence is marked by the growth spurt, a rapid and intense phase of
physical growth.
 The growth spurt is triggered by the growth hormone somatotrophin, which stimulates
the growth of nearly all body tissues, including bones, and significantly affects height
and weight.
 In girls, the growth spurt typically starts at 10–13 years and ends around 16 years or
later.
 In boys, it begins later—at 12–15 years—and ends around 18 years or later.
 Despite starting earlier in girls, boys grow faster and usually end up taller than girls
by the end of adolescence.
 Asynchrony refers to the uneven growth of body parts: legs, arms, hands, and feet
grow first, followed by the torso. This can make adolescents appear awkward.
 After the skeleton’s growth slows, muscle mass increases:
o Girls’ bodies become rounded due to widening hips.
o Boys develop a more angular look due to broadening shoulders.
 There are individual differences in physical development—some adolescents may
look like adults at 12 or 13, while others still resemble 10-year-olds. This is due to
genetic and environmental factors.

Question 5

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Brain development

Answer 5

As we have mentioned in Chapter 3, scientific advances in especially neuroimaging over the
past few decades have contributed to a much greater understanding of the growth of the
human brain from before birth to adulthood. Until quite recently, there had been a general
assumption in developmental psychology and neuroscience that major changes in the
architecture and functioning of the brain were limited to the prenatal period and the first five
or six years of life. However, neuroimaging has revealed that brain structure develops until
early adulthood (about 25 to 30 years of age).
Structural and functional changes in the brain during adolescence
Structural and Functional Brain Changes
 The adolescent brain is remodeled through:
o Synaptic pruning – removes unused connections.
o Myelination – strengthens important neural pathways, especially in the corpus
callosum, improving information processing.
Uneven Brain Maturation
 Different brain regions mature at different rates:
o The limbic system (emotions, rewards) matures early.
o The prefrontal cortex (planning, impulse control, long-term decision-making)
matures late – into the mid-20s.
o This mismatch explains risky behaviour: strong emotions + weak impulse
control.
o Metaphor: “Starting the engines with an unskilled driver and no brakes.”
Neurochemical Influences
 Dopamine and serotonin increase, making adolescents:
o More emotional
o More reward- and thrill-seeking
o More responsive to stress
o More vulnerable to mental health issues (e.g., depression, anxiety, eating
disorders)
The Social Brain
 The social brain helps adolescents understand facial expressions, emotions, and
others’ intentions.
 During adolescence, it becomes hypersensitive to social cues, making teens:
o Easily embarrassed
o Highly influenced by peers
o More socially self-conscious
Emerging Cognitive Skills
 As the prefrontal cortex develops, adolescents gain:
o Better executive functioning (self-control, planning, reasoning)
o Improved emotional regulation
o Greater sensitivity to others’ emotions and mental states
o Enhanced cause-effect reasoning
Biology, experience and plasticity: Influences on brain development in adolescence
Nature vs Nurture: What Comes First?
 It’s debated whether:
o Brain changes (e.g. prefrontal cortex thickening) cause behavioural growth
(e.g. resisting peer pressure),
o Or if experiences (like resisting peer pressure) stimulate those changes.
 The conclusion? It’s complex — both biology (nature) and experience (nurture)
interact continuously.

Question 6

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: Plasticity: The Brain’s Ability to Change

Answer 6

 Two key periods of plasticity:
1. Infancy (0–3 years)
2. Adolescence (newer discovery)
 Plasticity means the brain:
o Changes in response to active learning and passive exposure.
o Is highly influenced by environment (both positive and negative).
o Can benefit from education but is also more vulnerable to harm
Risks of Heightened Plasticity
 Adolescents’ brains are especially sensitive to:
o Substance use (alcohol, nicotine, drugs)
o Physical injury (e.g. sport-related concussion)
o Psychological stress or trauma
 These influences may lead to permanent damage or issues in adulthood (e.g., anxiety,
depression, poor impulse control).

Question 7

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: Contact Sports and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (MTBI)

Answer 7

 Rugby, a popular contact sport in South Africa, is linked with:
o MTBI – caused by blows to the head (even if “mild”).
o Symptoms: confusion, disorientation, short-term memory loss.
o Long-term consequences: memory problems, depression, and increased health
risks.
South African Studies:
 Basson et al. (2017): Rugby players showed reduced executive functioning compared
to those in non-contact sports.
o Executive functioning includes: planning, memory, impulse control,
motivation, emotional regulation.
 Similar findings by Nel et al. (2017) and Shuttleworth-Edwards et al. (2007).
 Other sports like boxing and soccer also show MTBI risks.
o In the U.S., ~50% of youth sport-related brain injuries come from contact
sports.

Question 8

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: The influence of gender on brain development

Answer 8

What the Research Says:
 The media often claims big differences between male and female brains.
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 But scientific evidence shows:
o Gender differences in brain structure and function are small.
o Some areas are slightly larger in females, others in males, but overall the
similarities outweigh the differences.
o These structural differences do not clearly explain behavioural or cognitive
differences between the sexes.
Hormones and Brain Development:
 Sex hormones (e.g., testosterone, oestrogen) do affect brain development.
 However, how these hormonal effects influence behaviour or thinking is still not well
understood.
 Sexual maturation, also known as puberty, is a major physical and psychological
process during adolescent development.
 Sexual maturity is the stage when an individual can reproduce.
 The main hormones responsible for sexual maturation are sex hormones, also called
gonadal hormones or gonadotrophin.
 These hormones are secreted by the pituitary gland, which is connected to the
hypothalamus in the limbic system of the brain.
 Gonadotrophin stimulates the gonads (testes in males, ovaries in females) to release
male and female sex hormones.
 Male sex hormones are called androgens, with testosterone and androsterone being
the most important.
 Males also produce small amounts of oestrogen.
 Female sex hormones are called oestrogens (or oestrogen).
 Androgen and oestrogen lead to the development of primary and secondary sex
characteristics.
o Primary sex characteristics: Reproductive organs (penis, testes, vagina, uterus,
ovaries).
o Secondary sex characteristics: Physical traits that develop during puberty but
are not directly involved in reproduction.
 Males: Body hair (beard, pubic, chest) and deeper voice.
 Females: Breasts and pubic hair.
 Puberty involves complex, integrated changes in body, brain, behaviour, cognition,
and emotion.
 Puberty is starting earlier than in the past, a pattern known as the secular trend.
 The secular trend may be due to:
o Healthier diets
o Better medical care
o Improved hygiene
o Fewer childhood diseases (due to immunisation)
 Puberty begins about two years earlier in girls than in boys.
 Table 6.1 provides examples, but individual and group variations exist.
 A Western Cape study found delayed puberty in boys compared to boys from other
regions.
o Delays were linked to nutrition, socio-economic status, and environmental
factors.
 Another South African study found that height and body mass in early childhood
predicted the onset of puberty.
pg 160

Question 9

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: Sexual maturation in girls

Answer 9

Primary sex characteristics
 Primary sex organs begin to enlarge: ovaries, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris
Secondary sex characteristics
 First visible sign: appearance of breast buds
 Growth of pubic and underarm hair
 Broader hips, accumulation of body fat, slight voice deepening, skin texture changes
Menarche (First Menstruation)
 Physical and Emotional Impact
o Symbolic and dramatic marker of sexual maturity
o Emotional responses can be mixed:
 Positive: increased social maturity, peer prestige, self-esteem, body
awareness
 Negative: self-consciousness, discomfort, backaches, cramps, possible
shame due to societal reactions (Anjum et al., 2018)
Cultural and Individual Differences
 Reactions shaped by preparation and culture
 E.g., Batswana girls show pride in physical changes (Mwamwenda,
1995)
 Western girls may feel shy or uncomfortable
 Cultural rituals and ambivalence:
 Traditions like intonjane and inkciyo (Xhosa, Zulu, Shona cultures)
 Some women feel pride and discomfort simultaneously
(Padmanabhanunni et al., 2018)
Timing of Menarche
 Average Onset
o Globally and in South Africa: 12–13 years (Ramathuba, 2015; Paterson, 2016)
o Range considered normal: 11 to 15 years
 Sequence
o Menarche typically occurs:
 2–3 years after breast development and uterine growth
 After the growth spurt slows (Maher et al., 2018)
Factors Influencing Age at Menarche
 Biological and Environmental
o Influenced by pre-pubertal socio-economic status (Said-Mohamed et al., 2018)
 Physical Activity
o Intense exercise (e.g., athletes) may delay menstruation up to 18 years
 Psychosocial Factors
o Stressful experiences (e.g., family conflict, father absence) may lead to earlier
menarche (Tither et al., 2008)
 Socio-Economic Status
o Higher socio-economic status → earlier menarche than in lower SES groups
(Dey et al., 2020)
Fertility and Ovulation Post-Menarche
 Most girls begin to ovulate regularly 1–2 years after menarche
 However, some may ovulate immediately → risk of pregnancy if sexually active
(Carlson et al., 2019)
Puberty Rituals and Cultural Responses
 Modern vs Traditional Societies
o In urban/Westernised cultures → puberty seen as unremarkable
o In traditional/rural societies → marked by rituals, feasts, and initiation rites
 Female Circumcision (FGM)
o Practised in ~30 countries, including parts of South Africa
o Affects 200 million+ women globally (WHO, 2020)
Types of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
 Clitoridectomy
o Partial/total removal of the clitoris
 Excision
o Removal of clitoris + labia minora, sometimes labia majora
 Infibulation
o Removal of all external genitalia; vaginal opening stitched, only opened by
husband
 Other harmful practices
o Piercing, pricking, scraping, burning, etc., for non-medical purposes (NHS,
2019; WHO, 2020)
Description of FGM Practices
 FGM is traditionally performed by elderly women or traditional healers without
anaesthesia or antiseptics.
 Implements used include razor blades, knives, scalpels, and even glass.
 Immediate risks: extreme pain, bleeding, infection, shock, difficulty urinating, and
death.
 Long-term complications: chronic pain, childbirth issues, anxiety, frigidity, and
infertility.
Cultural Beliefs and Justifications
 Rooted in cultural and moral beliefs such as:
o Clitoris contains “poison” harmful to men and babies.
o Removing the clitoris enhances fertility and affirms femininity.
o Avoids the clitoris “growing into a penis.”
 Seen by some as a rite of passage into womanhood (e.g., Venda’s nonyana hut and the
branding ceremony).
pecific Cultural Examples
 Venda: Postnatal FGM (muthuso) uses vaginal flesh in traditional medicine to treat
goni.
 Basotho baTlokwa: Defend the practice as voluntary and tied to cultural identity and
dignity.
Opposition to FGM
 Human rights activists: Highlight its brutality, pain, and health risks.
 FGM is illegal under South African law (Children’s Act 38 of 2005).
 Some view it as gender-based violence carried out under the guise of tradition.
Challenges to Ending FGM
 Strong resistance from traditional leaders who see state laws as cultural interference.
 Deeply entrenched societal norms make it difficult for uncircumcised women to
marry or gain social acceptance.
 Viewed as an expression of identity and womanhood, making eradication complex.
Critical Reflections
 Human rights vs. cultural rights: The tension between protecting bodily autonomy and
respecting cultural traditions.
 Informed consent and agency: Even when claimed to be voluntary, social pressure
may compromise true choice.
 Health consequences vs. identity: Tradition must be weighed against scientific
evidence of harm and the rights of women and girls.
 Legal enforcement: The gap between policy and practice due to cultural resistance
and community secrecy.

Question 10

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: Sexual maturation in boys

Answer 10

Primary sex characteristics
 Puberty begins with the development of the testes and scrotum, followed by penis
enlargement.
Secondary sex characteristics
 These include pubic and armpit hair, beard growth, and voice deepening (due to vocal
cord and larynx changes).
 Semenarche (first ejaculation): Marks a major milestone in male sexual maturation,
typically occurring between ages 13 and 15.
Psychological Reactions to Puberty
 Most boys welcome these physical changes, although some may feel embarrassed,
particularly about spontaneous erections or voice changes.
 Adolescents who are prepared for these changes cope better and report more positive
experiences.
 Early or late maturation can affect self-esteem and peer relationships.
Traditional Male Circumcision
 Practiced in certain African cultures (e.g., among the Xhosa) as a rite of passage into
manhood.
 Involves ritual sacrifice, seclusion, circumcision, and symbolic practices like
smearing with white clay and burning of personal belongings.
 While culturally important, it has led to serious health risks including infection,
mutilation, gangrene, and even death due to unqualified practitioners and poor
hygiene.
 Despite legal and health concerns, many boys still prefer traditional circumcision due
to its cultural significance.
Legal and Health Concerns
 The Children’s Act (No. 38 of 2005) in South Africa prohibits harmful practices.
 Researchers recommend culturally sensitive negotiations instead of confrontational
strategies.
 Successful models like Zimbabwe’s partnership with the Varemba show that blending
tradition with medical safety can work.
Psychological Effects of Physical Changes
 Adolescents may struggle to accept their new appearance.
 Girls may worry about weight gain, especially in cultures that idealize thinness.
 Cultural differences affect body image—some African cultures view increased body
fat positively.
 Early or late maturation can influence self-perception and mental health.
Nelson Mandela’s Experience
Mandela’s reflection on burying his foreskin during initiation captures the symbolic nature of
the ritual, marking the end of childhood and the beginning of manhood.

Question 11

The psychological effects of physical changes

Answer 11

Adolescents and Body Changes
 Adolescents become very self-aware of their bodies as they change.
 One major task is to accept these physical changes, which can be difficult for many.
 Asynchronous growth (when body parts grow at different rates) can make teens feel
clumsy.
Gender-Specific Concerns
 Boys may feel embarrassed when their voice cracks or lowers.
 Girls often worry about sudden weight gain.
o In Western cultures, thinness is preferred.
o In some African cultures, body fat can symbolize health and wealth.
Psychological Impact of Maturation Timing
 The age at which puberty occurs matters for mental well-being.
 Early-maturing adolescents:
o Tend to be taller and heavier earlier than peers.
o Girls may face mental health risks (e.g., depression, early risky behaviour).
o Boys may be seen as more popular or athletic, but may also face behavioural
issues (e.g., delinquency).
 Late-maturing adolescents:
o Are smaller and lighter, and may feel left out or develop insecurities.
Cultural Context Matters
 In some African communities, early development can bring respect and social status,
unlike in Western settings.
 Mandela’s initiation story reflects how traditional practices mark the transition from
childhood to adulthood, symbolizing the burial of youth.
Long-Term Impact
 Some effects of early or late maturation may continue into adulthood.
 However, not all researchers agree that these effects last long-term.

Question 12

Body Image and Adolescence

Answer 12

 Definition: Body image is how one perceives, thinks, feels, and behaves toward their
body.
 Influencing factors:
o Media
o Peers
o Romantic partners
o Cultural beliefs/ideals
 Developmental changes affecting body image:
o Weight, height, body shape, body composition
o Primary and secondary sex characteristics
 Negative body image risks:
o Unhealthy eating habits
o Eating disorders

Question 13

Eating Disorders

Answer 13

Anorexia Nervosa
 Definition: Refusal/inability to maintain normal body weight.
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 Serious mental health disorder; can be life-threatening.
 Characteristics:
o BMI below 18.5; lower levels indicate severity
o Purging: vomiting, laxatives, over-exercise, drug use
o Distorted body image
o Often co-occurs with depression, anxiety, bulimia
o Physical symptoms: fine body hair, amenorrhea
 Demographics:
o Most common between puberty and 25
o 90% of sufferers are adolescent females
o High achievers, low self-esteem, feelings of isolation
o 10–20% die; 50% never recover
Bulimia Nervosa
 Definition: Binge eating followed by compensatory behaviours to avoid weight gain.
 Characteristics:
o Self-induced vomiting, laxatives, fasting, exercise
o Not necessarily underweight
o Over-concern with body image and weight
 Demographics:
o Peaks in late adolescence/early adulthood
o 1–3% prevalence in young females; ~0.1–0.3% in males
o Can begin as young as age 5
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 Cultural trend: Historically Western, now spreading globally due to
media/globalisation
Causes of Eating Disorders
 Multifactorial causes:
o Environmental and genetic
o Interaction of individual and contextual factors
 Psychological risk factors:
o Depression, anxiety, substance abuse
o Low self-esteem, early puberty, family strain
o Social pressures (e.g. dating)
 Gender and identity considerations:
o Less research on males
o Boys may strive for muscularity—risking steroid use
o Transgender individuals also at higher risk
o Body dissatisfaction → unhealthy weight control → depression
Obesity
 Definition: Excessive fat accumulation harmful to health
 BMI Classifications:
o 25–30: Overweight
o 30–35: Moderately obese
o 35–40: Severely obese
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o 40: Morbidly obese
 Consequences:
o Affects cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, musculoskeletal systems
o May cause infertility in females
o Leads to psychological issues: low self-esteem, anxiety, peer problems
Obesity in South African Adolescents
 Trends:
o High and rising prevalence in rural and urban areas
o Females more at risk
 Cultural influences:
o Some groups associate obesity with health
o Preferences for female body shape vary by region and context
 Normal BMI for sisters/mothers (health reason)
 Overweight for girlfriends/wives (sex appeal)
 Implications:
o Cultural beliefs can conflict with health realities
o Globalisation reducing cultural differences in body ideals
 Recommendations:
o Public health messaging should be gender- and age-appropriate
o Leverage social marketing to promote healthy weight
Contributing Factors to Adolescent Obesity
 Environmental and lifestyle:
o Increased intake of unhealthy foods
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o Sedentary lifestyles
 Cultural and sociological:
o Body image ideals
o Misconceptions about health
 Biological/genetic:
o Hormonal, neural, metabolic systems

Question 14

Adolescent sexuality

Answer 14

During puberty, adolescents undergo significant physical changes that heighten their
awareness of their sexuality. This newly developed sexuality becomes a key part of their
identity and relationships. Adolescents also begin to explore and understand their sexual
orientation. A major developmental task at this stage is learning to express their sexual needs
in socially acceptable ways that support their identity formation.

Question 15

Changing values and adolescent sexuality

Answer 15

Influence of Social Factors on Sexual Activity
 Sexual activity is a natural result of physical development.
 Social and cultural factors shape how sexuality is expressed.
 Cultures aim to direct sexual behaviour in healthy ways to avoid:
o Physical issues (e.g., STDs like HIV/AIDS, syphilis)
o Psychological issues (e.g., obsession with sex interfering with education)
o Social issues (e.g., unwanted pregnancy, sexual exploitation)
Historical Perspective in Europe
 In medieval Europe, early teenage marriage helped manage adolescent sexuality.
 In 19th-century European Christian culture:
o Emphasis was on suppressing adolescent sexuality.
o Sexual feelings and behaviours (e.g., masturbation) were made to feel
shameful.
o A double standard existed: adults preached sexual restraint but didn’t always
follow it.
o Religion increased guilt and ambivalence around premarital sex.
o This led to:
 Sexual dysfunction in adulthood
 Secretive or rebellious sexual exploration
Traditional African Approaches
 In many traditional African societies:
o Sexual exploration (not intercourse) was accepted and encouraged.
o Xhosa, Zulu, and Sotho cultures taught:
 Boys: engage in non-penetrative sexual activity.
 Girls: prevent penetration (e.g., by closing legs tightly).
o Practices included intercrural sex:
 Called ukumetsha (Xhosa), ukuhlobonga (Zulu).
o Girls were traditionally checked to confirm virginity.
o Penetrative sex was forbidden before marriage.
Modern Influences and Shifts
 Medical advances (e.g., contraception, STD treatment) encouraged sexual
permissiveness.
 1960s: increase in premarital sex tolerance and reduction in gender-based double
standards.
 Resulted in clashing values:
o Traditional sexual restriction vs. modern sexual freedom.
Impact of Westernisation and Urbanisation
 Decline in traditional practices due to:
o Urbanisation
o Reduced parental control
 Contributed to rising teenage pregnancies in South Africa.
Current Challenges and Mixed Messages
 Adolescents receive conflicting guidance:
o Parents/authority figures discourage sex but offer little information.
o Peers and media become main sources of sexual knowledge.
 Media often portrays sex:
o As spontaneous, romantic, and passion-driven.
o With little regard for emotional, contraceptive, or health consequences.

Question 16

Types of Adolescent Sexual Behaviour

Answer 16

 Autoerotic behaviour (masturbation):
o Common first sexual experience, even from childhood.
o Historically viewed negatively (immoral, sinful, harmful).
o Now considered normal and healthy unless it interferes with social life.
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o Still some anxiety due to cultural and parental attitudes.
o More common among males than females (up to 95% of males, 75% of
females by late adolescence).
 Interactive sexual activities (e.g. kissing, cuddling, intercourse):
o Shift in societal norms from the 1960s sexual revolution.
o Influenced by early puberty, peer pressure, media, and contraceptives.
- Early sexual maturation. As mentioned earlier, puberty
develops at an earlier age, with the result that adolescents
become sexually mature at an earlier age.
- Peer-group pressure. Because of certain attitudes of, and
pressures from their peer group, adolescents may be under the
impression that they are not “normal” if they are not sexually
active. Therefore, they become sexually active to be accepted
by their peer group. In fact, one of the strongest predictors of
sexual activity in adolescents is whether their friends are
sexually active.
- Changed values, attitudes, and the media. As mentioned before,
changed values, attitudes, the mass media, and even sexual
content in adolescents’ music contribute to the fact that
adolescents experience the world as sexually active and even
sexually preoccupied. This inevitably had the effect that
adolescents began to see sexual activity as more acceptable
than previous generations did.
- Contraceptives. The invention and availability of a reliable oral
contraceptive (‘the Pill’) during the sexual revolution took away
the fear of getting pregnant and thus defused a preventative
factor that had been very important in previous generations.
o WHO reports later initiation of sexual activity in 2020, possibly due to
technology and STD fears.
o Rates vary across cultures and countries.
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o In South Africa:
 Over 1/3 of females and 50% of males are sexually active.
 Average age of first sex: 15 for females, 14 for males.
 60% of females report coerced first experience.
 Male adolescents report more sexual partners.

Question 17

Key Influencing Factors in South Africa

Answer 17

 Lack of Parental Involvement:
o Parents are vital for healthy sex education but often avoid the topic.
o Adolescents turn to peers or unreliable sources, leading to myths and
misinformation.
o Sex education should go beyond biology to include relationships, consent,
identity, and safe practices.
 Peer Influence:
o Peers and admired figures heavily impact sexual behaviours.
o Adolescents conform to perceived norms, even if harmful.
o Fear of rejection can override awareness of risk.
 Substance Abuse:
o Alcohol and drugs linked to early sexual debut and risky sexual behaviour.
o Alcohol impairs judgement and increases risk-taking.
o Beliefs about alcohol’s effects influence actions (e.g., not using protection
when drinking).
o According to the alcohol myopia theory (i.e., short-sightedness), the intense
disinhibitory effects of alcohol reduce the ability to process complex
information (such as long-term goals), thus allowing immediate goals (such as
sexual arousal) to influence behaviour more strongly.
o Alcohol expectancy theory claims that the nature of one’s beliefs, as well as
the strength of these beliefs, influences the effect of alcohol on subsequent
high risk sexual behaviour
 Overcrowding:
o Housing shortages and informal settlements reduce sexual privacy.
o High sleeping density contributes to exposure to sexual behaviours and early
sexual experiences.

Question 18

Adolescent pregnancy
Global and South African Adolescent Pregnancy Statistics

Answer 18

 Each year, 21 million girls aged 15–19 in developing countries become pregnant, with
12 million giving birth.
 Around 800,000 births are to girls under 15.
 Pregnancy complications are the leading cause of death for 15–19-year-olds.
 Of 6 million adolescent abortions annually, 4 million are unsafe, causing serious
health risks.
 Babies of teen mothers face higher risks like low birth weight and preterm delivery.
 In South Africa, 15–20% of mothers had their first child as adolescents.

Question 19

Causes of Adolescent Pregnancy

Answer 19

 Early sexual activity and low/no contraceptive use are key factors.
 Many adolescents do not use contraceptives despite their availability.
Psychological and Personality Factors Influencing Non-Use of Contraceptives:
 High external locus of control – they believe events happen beyond their control.
 Low self-efficacy and self-esteem – lack of confidence in managing their behaviour
and decisions.
Other Contributing Reasons:
 Unplanned sexual encounters.
 Guilt or denial about being sexually active.
 Cultural beliefs about fertility.
 Adolescent egocentrism and “invincibility” mindset.
 Embarrassment to seek contraceptives.

Question 20

Misconceptions About Child Support Grants

Answer 20

 It is a myth that teens fall pregnant to receive grants.
 Studies show:
o Grants are too small to be an incentive.
o No increase in teen pregnancies after grants were introduced.
o Teen pregnancies are high in countries with no grants.
o Rates are declining despite the grants.

Question 21

Consequences of Teenage Pregnancy

Answer 21

 Emotional and social immaturity leads to poor readiness for parenthood.
 Can cause a chain reaction of negative impacts across generations.
 Psychological effects include depression, anxiety, isolation, and low life satisfaction.
178
 Adolescent mothers often struggle to return to school, face economic hardship, and
experience inferiority compared to peers.
Long-Term Outcomes (Anakpo et al., 2019; Johansen et al., 2020)
 Negative effects of adolescent motherhood can last decades.
 Those from privileged backgrounds may suffer more due to lost opportunities.
 Fathers often experience fewer negative outcomes due to age, employment, and
societal norms.
 Marriage or cohabitation may reduce stigma and provide more stability.
Broader Public Health Implications
 High-risk sexual behaviour also increases the risk of STIs like HIV, syphilis, and
herpes.
 A multidisciplinary approach involving families, schools, communities, and
policymakers is essential to address the issue.

Question 22

Understanding Sexual Orientation

Answer 22

 Definition: Sexual orientation is a person’s romantic and sexual attraction to a
specific gender.
 Prevalence: Around 95% of people globally identify as heterosexual.
 Hidden identities: Over 80% of non-heterosexual individuals hide their orientation
due to fear of discrimination.
 Misconceptions: Sexual activity is not a requirement for identifying with a particular
sexual orientation.

Question 23

Gayness: Research and Social Context

Answer 23

 Heavily researched but controversial: Gayness is the second most studied orientation
after heterosexuality but also the most debated, causing family, religious, and political
conflict.
 Historical context: Homosexuality was labeled a mental disorder until 1973.
 Legal and societal acceptance: Many countries accept gay rights (e.g., South Africa),
but ~70 countries criminalize homosexual acts, often on religious or cultural grounds.
 Misconception: Some countries and religious groups wrongly believe sexual
orientation is a personal choice and “un-African.”
Terminology and Language
 Importance of terminology: Language shapes perceptions. Using sensitive, accurate
terms avoids discrimination.
 Issues with “homosexual”: Seen as outdated, unclear, male-centred, and linked to past
pathologization.
 Preferred terms: “Gay” for males, “lesbian” for females. “Same-sex” is used for
relationships.
 Inclusive acronyms: LGBT evolved into LGBTQIA+ to represent a broader, diverse
group with unique identities and needs.
Adolescent Sexual Orientation Development
 Self-discovery: Most people discover their orientation during adolescence.
 Extra challenges for LGBTQ+ youth: Greater anxiety, fear, and risk of depression due
to discrimination.
 “Gaycism” vs. “Homophobia”: The term “gaycism” is proposed to better capture
systemic discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals.
 Concealment: Many adolescents pretend to be heterosexual due to fear, leading to
emotional distress.
oices of Gay Adolescents
 Examples shared: Show deep emotional struggles, fear of rejection, and eventual self-
acceptance.
 Insight: Not all gay adolescents cope the same—some accept themselves, others
experience severe mental health issues.
Prevalence and Exploration
 Hidden identity skews statistics.
 Estimated numbers: 5–10% of males and 2–5% of females may identify as gay.
 Exploration ≠ Orientation: Same-sex experiences during adolescence don’t necessarily
indicate a gay orientation.
Causes of Gayness
 Not a choice: This is supported by most researchers.
 Challenging the “choice” idea: Gay people ask thought-provoking questions to
highlight that orientation is not chosen.
 Rejected theories: Psychoanalytic theory (e.g., absent father) lacks support.
 Current evidence supports biology:
o No consistent environmental causes found.
o Children raised by gay parents usually grow up heterosexual.
o Twin studies show higher concordance in identical t

Question 24

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Answer 24

Adolescence is marked by significant cognitive changes alongside physical growth. As
adolescents’ bodies change, so does the way they think about themselves and the world. This
period sees growth in various thought processes, such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and reasoning. Adolescents begin to think more like adults, which influences how
they react to their changing social lives and relationships. While many cognitive challenges in
industrialized countries occur in schools, cognitive development impacts all areas of
adolescents’ lives. The prefrontal cortex continues to mature during this time, improving
higher-order functions like decision-making and planning, but full maturation happens only
in early adulthood.

Question 25

Theories of cognitive development

Answer 25

n our exploration of adolescent cognitive development, we shall focus on Jean Piaget's theory, the information processing approach, and the psychometric-intelligence approach. Jean Piaget: Formal operational thinking The information-processing view The psychometric intelligence approach

Question 26

Jean Piaget: Formal operational thinking

Answer 26

Piaget focused on how children and adults understand the world differently, suggesting cognitive development occurs in stages.  Adolescents enter the formal operational stage around ages 11-12, which extends into adulthood. This stage allows for abstract and scientific thinking. Characteristics of Formal Operational Thinking:  Hypothetico-deductive reasoning: Adolescents can develop hypotheses to solve problems and test them systematically (e.g., pendulum problem).  Propositional thinking: Adolescents can reason logically about abstract concepts, such as hypothetical scenarios, rather than relying solely on real-world experiences.  Combinatorial analysis: Adolescents can analyse all possible combinations of factors in a problem, unlike younger children who test haphazardly.  Relativistic thinking: Adolescents recognize that knowledge is subjective and can understand different perspectives and values. 182 Conceptual Skills in Formal Operations:  Adolescents can consider multiple variables, think about time-related changes, hypothesize sequences of events, anticipate consequences, detect logical consistency, and think relativistically about themselves and others. Criticism of Piaget’s Theory:  Limited applicability: Not all adolescents or adults reach formal operational thinking in all areas. There are significant individual differences based on experience and education.  Cultural differences: Some cultures may not emphasize formal operational thinking, particularly those without Western-style education, though it may appear in contexts familiar to the culture.  Overestimated capabilities: Piaget may have overestimated the ease and frequency with which formal operations are used in daily life. Formal operations are often difficult and unnecessary for many daily tasks. Cultural and Contextual Influence:  Formal operational thinking may be present in non-Western cultures when tasks are relevant to their experiences.  Piaget acknowledged that cultural experience affects the application of formal operations, with individuals applying these abilities to familiar tasks. Alternative Viewpoints:  The information-processing approach suggests that Piaget's theory does not fully capture the complexity of cognitive maturation in adolescence.

Question 27

The information-processing view

Answer 27

The information-processing view Cognitive changes in adolescence are refinements of existing abilities rather than the emergence of new ones. These changes include improved attention, processing speed, memory, and metacognition. 183 Attention Types: a) b) c) d) e) Selective Attention: Focusing on relevant information and ignoring distractions. Divided Attention: Multitasking or paying attention to multiple aspects simultaneously. Sustained Attention: Maintaining focus on a task for an extended period. Executive Attention: Involves planning, error detection, time management, and adaptability. Shifting Attention: Switching between tasks as needed. Processing Information  Adolescents process information faster and more efficiently than children. This is due to increased structural (cognitive ability) and functional (use of memory and attentional strategies) capacity, and greater automaticity in processing. Memory  Both working memory and long-term memory improve. Adolescents’ greater experience and knowledge base enhance memory, allowing them to encode and recall information more effectively. Organisational Strategies  Adolescents are better at planning and using strategies like mnemonics for academic tasks. They also recognize the most important features of problems and are more flexible in their approach to solving them. Metacognition  Metacognitive abilities, such as awareness of one's learning and thinking processes, improve. Adolescents are better at monitoring their progress, adjusting study methods, and reflecting on their emotions and self-consciousness, which aids in developing a coherent identity. 184 Abstract Thinking  These cognitive advancements enable adolescents to engage in abstract, multidimensional, and hypothetical thinking, laying the foundation for critical thinking. Criticism of Information-Processing Approach  The approach is criticized for breaking down complex phenomena into separate parts and neglecting emotions, which are crucial for cognitive functioning. However, newer models recognize the complexity of the brain and the simultaneous use of cognitive components.

Question 28

The psychometric intelligence approach

Answer 28

 Definition of Intelligence: o Intelligence is broadly defined as the ability to learn from experience, think abstractly, solve problems, and apply knowledge to function successfully in a specific environment. o Some psychologists view intelligence as a single trait, referred to as "general intelligence" (g), influencing all intellectual tasks.  Intelligence Testing: o Intelligence tests measure constructs like reasoning, learning, abstract thinking, and creativity, and are used to predict academic success. o Criticisms of intelligence tests:  They do not measure personality traits such as reliability and perseverance.  Difficult to create culturally fair tests.  Intelligence tests tend to focus on academic skills, neglecting other important real-life abilities.  Multiple Intelligences: o Howard Gardner's Theory: Proposes eight types of intelligence:  Linguistic: Ability to use language effectively (e.g., writers, journalists).  Logical-mathematical: Ability to solve logical problems (e.g., scientists, accountants).  Spatial: Ability to manipulate and understand spatial relationships (e.g., architects, artists).  Musical: Ability to create, understand, and appreciate music.  Bodily-kinaesthetic: Ability to control body movements (e.g., athletes, dancers).  Intrapersonal: Self-awareness and insight (e.g., psychologists).  Interpersonal: Ability to understand others (e.g., teachers, social workers).  Naturalistic: Ability to recognize and understand patterns in nature (e.g., biologists). o Gardner also suggests a possible existential intelligence related to philosophical reflection.  Criticisms of Gardner's Theory: o Some argue multiple intelligences are just different manifestations of general intelligence (g). o Question of how many intelligences exist, with debates about adding categories like moral or political intelligence. o Critics argue that some intelligences, such as musical intelligence, are better understood as talents or aptitudes rather than full intelligences.

Question 29

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory:

Answer 29

a) Analytical intelligence: Abstract thinking, logical reasoning, and academic achievement. b) c) Creative intelligence: Ability to think creatively and solve problems in unique ways. Practical intelligence: Everyday problem-solving, adaptability, and "street smarts." o Sternberg emphasizes the importance of these intelligences in real-life success, not just academic performance.  Criticisms of Sternberg's Theory: o Similar to Gardner, Sternberg's model has faced criticisms for lacking empirical research to establish its validity and reliability.  Cultural Influence on Intelligence: o Cultural context plays a significant role in shaping and defining intelligence, as different cultures value different skills and abilities. For example, Western cultures may prioritize logical-mathematical intelligence, while traditional San cultures may emphasize spatial and naturalistic intelligence

Question 30

Language development

Answer 30

Language development, once believed to be complete by late childhood, continues to evolve throughout adolescence and into adulthood. This development is more subtle during adolescence but becomes noticeable upon closer examination. While early childhood is crucial for vocabulary growth through brain maturation and increased exposure, adolescents depend more on external influences like schools, media, peers, and religious instructors to further their language development. These influences introduce specialized vocabulary in various fields such as science, technology, and religion, and expose adolescents to new forms of communication, including electronic media. Adolescents also develop a unique "adolescent register," a specialized form of language used to identify with their peer group, which often includes slang and expressions of group norms. This language is emotionally and socially coded and can include crude terms. As they mature into adulthood, these language patterns typically fade or become integrated into broader cultural use. Additionally, girls tend to perform better than boys in reading and writing throughout school, with higher verbal ability scores. Several factors contribute to this, including biological advantages in brain development and greater stimulation in language-related activities. Boys often avoid language arts, associating them with femininity, and prefer subjects perceived as "masculine," like math and sports.

Question 31

Practical cognition: The effects of adolescents cognitive abilities on certain areas of their development

Answer 31

Cognitive development in adolescence functions as an organisational core that affects all areas of thinking, no matter what the topic. Therefore, cognitive development affects a wide range of other aspects of development, from family relations and friendships, to school performance and risky behaviour. We shall discuss some of these areas affected by adolescents' change in cognitive abilities. (Also refer to our earlier discussion on developments in the brain, such as the social brain, the limbic system, and the prefrontal cortex.)

Question 32

Implications for the classroom Cognitive Development in Adolescents:

Answer 32

Cognitive Development in Adolescents:  Adolescents' cognitive abilities enable them to handle abstract and logical thinking required in subjects like mathematics, science, and literature.  Inductive and deductive reasoning improve during adolescence:  Inductive reasoning: Making generalizations from specific observations. It may lead to conclusions that are not always true.  Deductive reasoning: Reasoning from general assumptions to specific conclusions. It's a higher-order skill, but can lead to incorrect assumptions if the premises are false. Cognitive Skills Development:  Adolescents can gather facts, generate alternatives, think abstractly, and test ideas logically, which allows for more complex learning.  They can engage in scientific thinking, but these skills require practice. Information without understanding or application limits cognitive growth. Impact on Study Skills:  Adolescents are better at identifying knowledge gaps and adjusting study strategies.  They can be taught to improve metacognitive skills, such as assessing their reading comprehension through cues in texts. Broader View of Intelligence:  The broader conceptualization of intelligence (including theories by Gardner and Sternberg) supports adolescents' potential in areas beyond academics, such as sports, music, and practical skills. Most adolescents have the potential to succeed in at least one area.

Question 33

Cognitive: Implications for the parent-child relationship

Answer 33

Abstract and Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning in Adolescence: o Adolescents develop the ability to gather facts and build arguments, which can lead to increased argumentativeness. o This shift in reasoning contributes to a more independent attitude, challenging the parent-child relationship. Impact on Parent-Child Relationship: o Adolescents face multiple alternatives or solutions and prefer making their own decisions, leading to conflicts if parents don't respect this drive for independence. o Their questioning attitude requires parents to explain their decisions and reasons. Disagreements may arise if parents don't acknowledge their adolescent's viewpoints or provide satisfactory explanations. Idealism and the "Generation Gap": o Adolescents imagine ideal, perfect worlds, leading to a more critical view of family, religion, politics, and morals, which may conflict with adult perspectives. o This idealism creates tension, often referred to as the "generation gap," as adolescents critique their parents and society. Intellectual Growth: o Despite conflicts, adolescents' capacity for argumentation, idealism, and criticism encourages intellectual growth. o These abilities foster stimulating debates on moral, ethical, and political issues, helping adolescents move toward a higher level of understanding.

Question 34

Social cognition

Answer 34

 Refers to how people perceive, think about, interpret, categorize, and judge social behaviours.  Perspective-Taking (role-taking) is a key component, which involves understanding situations from others' viewpoints.

Question 35

Social cognition: Stages of Perspective-Taking (Selman’s Research):

Answer 35

1. Egocentric (4-6 years): Children can't distinguish their perspective from others'. 2. Social-informative (6-8 years): Children realize others may interpret events differently, but their own feelings dominate. 3. Self-reflective (8-10 years): Children understand others may have a different viewpoint and can predict their reactions. 4. Mutual (10-12 years): Children realize perspective-taking is mutual and can take a third-person view of situations. 5) Social & Conventional (12-15 years): Adolescents understand social roles and societal influences on perspectives. Development of Perspective-Taking:  Perspective-taking improves from childhood to adolescence, though age alone doesn't determine abilities.  Adolescents may reach different stages at different ages, and perspective-taking is linked to peer relationships and popularity. Implicit Personality Theories:  These theories involve assumptions about how personality traits co-occur, such as linking humour with intelligence.  Children (6-7 years): Describe others by external traits, often egocentrically.  Children (8-10 years): Describe others using internal traits, but with inconsistency.  Adolescents: Describe others abstractly, with more complexity and awareness of situational behaviour, understanding that people can display different traits depending on the context. Changes in Judging Others:  Adolescents’ implicit personality theories become more organized and integrated, differentiating them from younger children in their cognitive development.

Question 36

Self-consciousness and self-focusing

Answer 36

Adolescent Egocentrism:  Adolescents become less egocentric in terms of perspective-taking but develop a new form of egocentrism, focusing more on themselves due to physical and psychological changes.  Piaget proposed this new egocentrism, where adolescents struggle to differentiate between their own thoughts and the perspectives of others. 191 Imaginary Audience:  Adolescents believe they are the constant focus of others' attention, leading to heightened self-consciousness.  This belief makes them overly concerned with their appearance and sensitive to public criticism, as they think everyone is observing them. Personal Fable:  Adolescents develop a sense of uniqueness, believing their thoughts and feelings are special and not understood by others.  This belief can lead to a sense of invulnerability, contributing to risk-taking behaviours (e.g., unprotected sex, drug use, reckless driving). Connection Between Imaginary Audience and Personal Fable:  The personal fable stems from the imaginary audience and reinforces adolescents' inflated sense of importance and uniqueness.  Adolescents often believe their unique experiences will lead to fulfilling their dreams, and they may feel misunderstood by others. Influence of Social Media:  The use of social media can amplify the sense of having an imaginary audience, as adolescents gain validation from large numbers of online friends.  Increased social media use is linked to greater self-absorption and validation of the personal fable. Decline of Imaginary Audience and Personal Fable:  These beliefs gradually decrease as adolescents' abstract reasoning improves, although adults also experience some of these tendencies, such as the "optimistic bias" (the tendency to overestimate positive events and underestimate negative ones). 192 Planning and decision-making Cognitive Improvement in Adolescence:  Adolescents develop better cognitive self-regulation, such as planning, goal monitoring, and adjusting actions, leading to improved study skills from middle childhood into adolescence.  Despite cognitive advances, young adolescents can struggle with decision-making due to being overwhelmed by numerous possibilities, often leading to impulsive actions or inaction.

Question 37

Adolescent Decision-Making:

Answer 37

 Adolescents are faced with important decisions (e.g., career, drug use, sexual activity) and the question arises about their competence in decision-making.  Behavioural Decision Theory outlines the decision-making process, including identifying choices, evaluating consequences, and integrating these into decisions. Age and Skill Development in Decision-Making:  Early adolescents are more skilled than young children, and late adolescents are more skilled than early adolescents.  Major transitions in decision-making skills occur at ages 11-12 and 15-16. However, differences between late adolescents and adults in decision-making processes are minimal. Psychosocial Influences on Adolescent Decision-Making:  Competent decision-making includes both cognitive and psychosocial factors. Adolescents, though cognitively capable, are often more influenced by emotions and peer acceptance, affecting their decisions.  The maturation of different brain systems, like the limbic system (reward-seeking), and the prefrontal cortex (cognitive control), contributes to risk-taking behaviour in adolescence.

Question 38

Brain Development and Risk-Taking behaviour:

Answer 38

 The limbic system matures earlier, making adolescents more prone to acting on immediate rewards, especially in social contexts where peer acceptance is a significant motivator.  Adolescents are more likely to engage in risky behaviours (e.g., drug use, reckless driving) in the presence of peers, even if they understand the risks. Risk-Taking behaviour and Its Consequences:  Risk-taking leads to higher incidents of alcohol and drug use, accidents, and suicide during adolescence.  Specific concerns for South African adolescents include alcohol abuse, unprotected sexual activity, and carrying weapons, which result in poor health and educational outcomes. Positive Aspects of Risk-Taking:  While often linked to negative outcomes, some risk-taking behaviours can have positive effects, such as fostering openness to new experiences, learning new skills, and promoting prosocial behaviour.  Adolescence, as a stage for venturing out, requires risk-taking and the ability to learn from experiences for success in adulthood.

Question 39

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Answer 39

Adolescence is often viewed as a turbulent period filled with risks, conflict, and disregard for societal norms. However, this perspective may reflect more about adults than about adolescents themselves. While media and research highlight the challenges of this stage, most adolescents make significant strides toward maturity. They develop more complex thoughts and gain deeper insights into themselves and others as they form their identities. Despite some emotional ups and downs, adolescence is generally an exciting time full of first experiences and lasting memories. The chapter will explore the development of temperament, personality traits, identity, emotional growth, and career choices during this period.

Question 40

Personality development: Temperament and personality traits

Answer 40

As discussed earlier, although temperament and personality have a strong biological basis, various other variables also play important roles. The environment (including family, peers, and broader contexts) could have a significant affect. The influence of life experiences, especially interpersonal experiences, as shapers of temperament and personality should never be underestimated. As discussed in previous chapters, life experiences alter the connections between emotional reactions to events, conceptualisations of events and strategies for coping with events. However, the unique interaction between all the various variables will determine the outcome pg 195, 196

Question 41

Personality development theories

Answer 41

Erikson’s theory: Identity vs identity confusion James Marcias’s theory: The formulation of identity statuses Jean Phinney’s Model of Ethnic Identity Development

Question 42

Personality development: identity dev:

Answer 42

Since the development of an identity is an important task during adolescence, Erikson's theory of identity development will be discussed in more detail (Erikson, 1968, 1974, 1994; also see Schachter et al., 2018). This will be followed by James Marcia's theory of identity statuses, as well as a review of South African studies on identity development. The formation of a group identity will also be explored.

Question 43

Personality development: Erikson’s theory: Identity vs identity confusion

Answer 43

 Identity Development: o Erikson described identity as an individual's awareness of themselves as unique and independent with a place in society. o He believed adolescence was a key period for identity formation due to significant developmental changes. o To form a strong identity, adolescents must resolve previous psychosocial crises (trust, autonomy, initiative, industry). o Identity formation is a process of defining who they are, what matters to them, and their future direction. o This process is called an identity crisis, where adolescents explore and question existing values, roles, and experiment with different identities. o A psychosocial moratorium allows adolescents time to explore roles, careers, ideologies, and relationships.  Key Themes in Identity Formation: o Gender roles, relationships, marriage, religion, politics, independence from parents, and career choices. o Tasks for identity formation include:  Ego-synthesis: Developing a continuous, unified self-image despite life changes.  Sociocultural identity: Incorporating cultural values into one’s identity.  Gender role identity: Accepting one’s sexual maturity and gender identity.  Career identity: Making a realistic career choice based on one’s abilities.  Value system: Developing an individual philosophy or value system to guide life decisions. 197  Identity Confusion: o Identity confusion occurs when adolescents are indecisive, unable to integrate various roles, or confronted with conflicting value systems. o This confusion leads to anxiety and apathy, or hostility towards roles/values. o Identity foreclosure: Adolescents adopt roles based on external expectations, not their true identity (e.g., becoming a doctor because of parental pressure). o Negative identity: Adopting an identity that contradicts societal values (e.g., drug abuse, delinquency).  Evaluation of Erikson's Theory: o Research supports Erikson's ideas, highlighting the importance of identity formation for healthy relationships in adulthood. o However, some critiques of his theory include:  Crisis Concept: The term "identity crisis" suggests a traumatic event, which is not always the case. Many adolescents feel positive about their identity exploration.  Timing of Identity Crisis: Erikson suggested identity crises occur between 15-18 years, but research shows many adolescents experience them later, often into early adulthood.  Simultaneous Development: Adolescents don’t form their identity in all areas at once. They may feel confident in one area (like career choice) while still exploring others (e.g., gender roles, political beliefs).  Gender Bias: Erikson’s research focused more on males, and his theory may not apply to females in the same way.  Cultural Variations: Erikson overgeneralizes cultural experiences, as identity development may differ significantly across cultures (e.g., between westernized and traditional South African adolescents).

Question 44

Personality development: James Marcias’s theory: The formulation of identity statuses

Answer 44

 Erikson's influence: Erikson's theory on identity inspired James Marcia’s research, which focuses on how adolescents resolve the identity crisis.  Identity Statuses: Marcia identified four distinct identity statuses based on crises faced and commitments made: o Identity Achievement: Passed the crisis period and committed to career and values. o Identity Moratorium: Still in crisis, exploring alternatives actively. o Identity Foreclosure: No crisis experienced, but committed to certain values, often due to parental influence. o Identity Diffusion: Crisis may or may not be experienced, but no commitment to values or goals.  Identity Development Process: o Adolescents typically move through these statuses in a general pattern: foreclosure/diffusion → moratorium → identity achievement. o Multiple Facets: Adolescents can achieve different statuses for different aspects of life (e.g., political views vs. career choices).  Fluctuation: Adolescents often fluctuate between identity statuses until reaching a stable identity.

Question 45

Personality development: Studies on Identity Development:

Answer 45

 Traditional backgrounds: Adolescents from traditional settings tend to adopt foreclosure identities, following predefined paths.  Stressors and identity: Adolescents facing extreme stress (e.g., life-threatening illnesses) may adopt foreclosure as a protective strategy. 199  Late development: Some studies show that identity formation can occur later, particularly for those in college, where they may experience moratorium but move to commitment quickly.  Stagnation in Development: Adolescents who remain in foreclosure or diffusion may face adjustment issues. o Foreclosure: Tends to cause inflexibility and intolerance. o Diffusion: Leads to apathy, passivity, and potential for negative behaviours like substance abuse.  Identity Formation Throughout Life: Identity formation may begin later than previously thought and continue through adulthood, with periods of stability and instability. Factors Contributing to Identity Formation:  Cognitive Development: Advanced abstract reasoning and information-processing skills can help adolescents achieve identity.  Parenting: Supportive, secure relationships with parents facilitate exploration and identity achievement. Foreclosed adolescents may lack opportunities for healthy separation.  Peer Interactions: Peers offer support and role models for identity exploration.  Educational and Community Influence: Schools and communities that offer diverse experiences enhance identity development.  Personality: Open-mindedness and flexibility help in developing a mature identity. Those with rigid or indecisive tendencies may remain in foreclosure or diffusion.  Sociocultural and Sociopolitical Factors: Factors like poverty, discrimination, and traditions can shape the identity development process.  Cyberworld Influence: Online interactions allow adolescents to experiment with different roles, and these digital identities can be just as significant as their real-life ones. table pg 201

Question 46

Personality development: Identity development of South African adolescents

Answer 46

Cultural Identity and Race  Black adolescents have stronger identity certainty than white adolescents.  This is linked to: o A strong cultural identity formed during the anti-apartheid struggle. o Recognition of black culture in post-1994 democratic South Africa. o The rise of African role models overcoming hardship.  White adolescents face: o Less cultural dominance. o Fewer visible role models. o A longer period of identity exploration and uncertainty. Personal, Collective, and National Identity  White adolescents focus more on personal traits (e.g., age, gender).  Black adolescents feel most connected to their racial group.  Indian and Coloured adolescents fall between the two in group identity strength. 201  On national identity: o 82% of black and 75% of Coloured adolescents feel "very South African". o Only 57% of Indian and 47% of white adolescents feel the same.  Conclusion: White youth may feel socially excluded and avoid engaging with broader society. Identity Formation Challenges for Black Adolescents  Adolescents struggle to combine Western individualism with African collectivism.  Most still report: o A strong ethnic and national identity. o Pride in their culture, language, and traditions. o A positive self-image and hopeful future outlook.  Family and community support encourages a strong collective identity. Racial and Socio-Economic Identity Among Girls  White girls rarely mention being white as part of their identity. o They feel both confident and uncertain about their race.  For black girls: o Race is both a burden (linked to poverty) and a source of hope (due to affirmative action). o Socio-economic status plays a key role in shaping their identity. 202 Friendships and Personal Identity  Race is not a major factor in forming friendships or self-identity.  Adolescents believe people should be accepted for who they are.  Identities are fluid and influenced by context. o Example: One girl described acting "white" at school but "black" at home, showing identity shifts across settings. Stereotyping and Resistance  Black adolescents experience identity-influencing stereotypes based on: o Race, gender, sexual orientation, language, and class.  These stereotypes limit self-expression and exploration. o Participants reported feeling suppressed, confused, and hopeless.  Many resist by: o Rejecting stereotypes. o Embracing their uniqueness and breaking the cycle of expected behaviours. Impact of Domestic Violence  Adolescents exposed to domestic violence: o Score lower in identity development than peers from peaceful homes. o Struggle more with gender identity, self-concept, and moral development.  No gender differences were found among those affected.  Conclusion: Domestic violence negatively affects identity development across genders. 203 Skin Lightening in Africa  Skin lightening aims to reduce melanin for a lighter complexion.  It's a dangerous practice with harmful side effects (e.g., skin cancer, organ damage).  Despite health risks, its use is increasing—especially among young, urban, educated women.  Motivations include: o Fashion, smooth skin, peer approval. o Perception of light skin as more attractive.  Historical reasons (colonialism, slavery) contribute but do not fully explain the current trend.

Question 47

Personality dev: Forming a group identity

Answer 47

Besides creating a personal identity, it’s also important for adolescents to form a group identity, a feeling of belonging with others. Personal identity helps them see what they have in common with others, which leads to group identity. In South Africa, forming an ethnic identity (or cultural identity) is especially important but also challenging because of the country’s many cultures. Young people need to understand their own cultural background while also respecting and living among other cultures. Parents can help by teaching their children about their cultural traditions and preparing them to live in a diverse society, without encouraging anger or mistrust. A strong ethnic identity has many benefits. It often leads to higher self-esteem, more optimism, better emotional well-being, and even higher academic success. It can also protect youth from the harm of racial or ethnic discrimination. Exploring and accepting other cultures as part of your identity (multiculturalism) can also be helpful. In a diverse country like South Africa, all cultural groups have had to form their identities in a changing society.

Question 48

Jean Phinney’s Model of Ethnic Identity Development

Answer 48

Jean Phinney created a model to explain how young people form their ethnic identities. She focused on adolescents because they go through big changes during this time. She described three stages: 1. Unexamined Ethnic Identity: The adolescent hasn’t thought much about their ethnicity. Those from dominant groups may not feel the need to. Others may accept the dominant culture’s views, even negative ones about their own group. 2. Ethnic Identity Search: This stage is about exploring one’s culture. Adolescents may start learning about their history, language, and traditions, often triggered by events like heritage days or experiences of discrimination. 3. Ethnic Identity Achievement: In this final stage, the adolescent understands and accepts their ethnic identity and feels confident about it. Phinney also found four different ways young people might respond to their ethnic identity:  Assimilation: Giving up your own culture to fit into the majority culture.  Marginalisation: Feeling like you don’t belong to either your own or the majority culture.  Separation: Sticking only to your own cultural group and rejecting others.  Biculturalism: Combining your own culture with that of the majority, being comfortable in both. In South Africa, multiculturalism is common, where people move between several cultures. While Phinney’s theory is helpful, it was developed using small groups in the U.S., so we don’t know for sure if it applies to all cultures, like the San people or white adolescents in Johannesburg. Factors like gender, income, and experiences like discrimination can also affect identity development

Question 49

Other Types of Group Identity

Answer 49

Apart from ethnic identity, adolescents also form other group identities:  Gender Identity: This is how one sees oneself as male, female, or transgender in different areas of life. During adolescence, young people learn more about gender roles and decide how to express their gender in different settings.  Political Identity: This includes beliefs about politics and being involved in political actions. It’s shaped by family, friends, the media, and personal experiences. In South Africa, with its unique political history, politics strongly influence youth identity. Some adolescents might be influenced by extreme ideas, both online and in real life. Political views formed during adolescence often last into adulthood. A study in the Eastern Cape found that young white people often feel torn between their parents’ old political views and the desire to be part of a new, diverse South Africa. Some feel they are being unfairly blamed for the past.  Religious Identity: This is about how young people form their own religious beliefs and view the world through their faith. Around 85% of South Africans follow a religion. Parents play the biggest role in shaping religious identity, but friends, family members, and religious leaders also help. Religious and political identities often affect each other. Religious beliefs usually stay stable through high school, but some teenagers may attend fewer religious events as they grow older. A study in Cape Town showed that teenage girls are more likely than boys to stick with the religion they were raised in.

Question 50

Pers: Self-concept: Adolescents’ understanding of self

Answer 50

As adolescents grow, the way they think about themselves changes in important ways. These changes are connected to how their thinking skills improve. Compared to younger children, adolescents:  Talk more about feelings and personality than about physical traits. (e.g. A child might say, “I have brown eyes,” while a teen might say, “I feel lonely.”) 206  Use more abstract descriptions. (e.g. A child might say, “I love sports,” but a teen might say, “I’m an honest person.”)  See different parts of themselves in different situations. For example, how they are accepted by the larger group, close friends, and romantic partners may all feel different. Teens also realize they act differently in different social settings.  Have a more complete and organized view of themselves. They can understand that they might feel happy in some situations and unhappy in others. They may explain this by saying they are moody or feel better around certain people.  Think more deeply about themselves. Teens become more self-aware and may feel more embarrassed or self-conscious than younger children or adults.

Question 51

Pers dev: The actual self, possible self and false self

Answer 51

As teenagers grow, they start to understand themselves in more complicated ways. One of these is being able to tell the difference between:  The actual self – the person they really are.  The possible self – the person they could become. There are two types of possible selves:  The ideal self – the person they want to be (e.g. a good athlete).  The feared self – the person they are afraid of becoming (e.g. someone like an alcoholic parent). These ideas help teens think about who they are and who they want to be. If the gap between their actual self and ideal self is too big, they may feel sad or like a failure. But thinking about possible selves can also help them work harder to reach their goals and avoid negative outcomes. Teens also begin to understand that they can be different in different situations, like being shy in a group but talkative with close friends. These differences can be confusing, but they show that teens are learning to understand their feelings and how their behaviour changes depending on the situation. Another important idea is the false self. This is when teens act in a way that doesn’t match how they really feel or think. They might do this to fit in, impress others, or hide parts of themselves they don’t want people to see. Even though they may not like pretending, they sometimes feel it's necessary in certain social situations.

Question 52

Pers dev: Self-esteem

Answer 52

Self-esteem is how people think and feel about themselves. It shows how much they value themselves. A person can have either high or low self-esteem. As children grow, their self-esteem starts to include how they see their thinking skills, physical abilities, and social skills. In adolescence, even more areas become important, like how they look, their sexuality, friendships, romantic relationships, and future careers. Self-esteem often changes during adolescence. When children are very young, their self- esteem is usually high. In middle childhood, it becomes lower and more realistic as they compare themselves with others. During early adolescence, self-esteem may drop because of body changes, new schools, and social pressures. But it usually improves again as they adjust. Self-esteem becomes more detailed. According to Susan Harter, there are 8 areas (domains) of self-esteem in teens: 1. School performance 2. Social skills 3. Sports ability 4. Physical appearance 5. Job-related skills 6. Romantic relationships 7. behaviour 8. Close friendships Teens don’t need to feel good in all these areas to have high overall (global) self-esteem. What matters most is which areas they personally think are important. For example, if school is important to them, how they feel about their academic abilities will strongly affect their overall self-esteem.

Question 53

Pers dev: There are two kinds of self-esteem:

Answer 53

 Baseline self-esteem: How someone usually feels about themselves over time.  Barometric self-esteem: How someone’s self-worth changes throughout the day based on their experiences and mood. In early adolescence, barometric self-esteem often swings quickly. Teens may feel happy, sad, confident, or insecure, all in one day, depending on what happens or who they're with.

Question 54

Pers dev: effects of self-esteem

Answer 54

High self-esteem usually helps teens be more confident, friendly, and responsible. But low self-esteem is linked to problems like:  Aggression (especially if relationships with parents are bad)  Anxiety and lack of focus (if academic self-esteem is low)  Depression (if they struggle with friendships)

Question 55

pers dev: However, self-esteem research has limits:

Answer 55

1. Self-report bias: Most studies use questionnaires. People may say how they want to feel, not how they actually feel. 2. Cause vs. effect: It’s unclear whether self-esteem leads to good behaviour or if good behaviour leads to higher self-esteem. Studies suggest that success (especially at school) often leads to better self-esteem, not the other way around. 3. Risky behaviour: Teens with high self-esteem may actually take more risks (like sex or drinking) because they feel confident. Negative experiences in these areas can lower their self-esteem. 4. Aggression: People once thought low self-esteem caused aggression. But many aggressive people actually have high or inflated self-esteem. Some researchers say that people with low self-esteem often work harder and can do just as well in life, or even better, than those with high self-esteem. Also, culture matters. In individualistic cultures (like many Western countries), people are taught to feel unique and independent, so they often report high self-esteem. In collectivist cultures (like many Asian or African societies), people focus more on self-improvement and community, so they may rate themselves lower but still be happy and successful.

Question 56

Optimism in South African Teens

Answer 56

South African teens from different backgrounds often show:  A positive view of themselves  A hopeful attitude  Strong social and religious values Despite problems like poverty, HIV/AIDS, and crime, many remain optimistic and independent. But a poor education system holds many of them back from reaching their goals.

Question 57

Pers dev: Emotions

Answer 57

Teenagers are often seen as being more emotional than younger children. People say they have sudden mood changes and emotional outbursts. Research shows that adolescents do, in fact, experience more mood swings than younger children and adults (Larson et al., 2002). These mood swings are especially strong during early adolescence, and girls usually experience bigger emotional changes than boys (Maciejewski et al., 2015). However, this idea of teens being overly emotional is often exaggerated. Still, as their bodies, thinking, personalities, and social lives change, they do go through emotional changes. Teens tend to have fewer very happy moments and more negative feelings than younger children. For example, they often feel self-conscious, embarrassed, awkward, lonely, nervous, or ignored. Their moods can quickly shift from happy to sad and back again. Gender also plays a role:  Girls may feel more anger and sadness.  Boys may feel both energetic and focused, but also irritated and aggressive. Moodiness is a normal part of being a teenager, and most will grow out of it and become emotionally healthy adults. But in some cases, strong negative emotions could be a sign of deeper emotional problems. These changes are partly linked to puberty hormones and brain development, especially in the limbic system (the part of the brain involved in emotions). But hormones are not the only reason teens feel this way. Stressful situations, like fights with parents, dating issues, school discipline, or bad marks, can also affect their mood. Teens also go through many different situations in one day, like moving from school to home to friends, which affects their mood. Because their thinking is more advanced, they notice things others might miss and imagine possible dangers, which can cause anxiety. Also, because they focus more on themselves, they may feel guilt, shame, or embarrassment more easily than children. Even so, teens can now better understand their own and other people’s feelings. They start to show more empathy (understanding others' emotions). Being aware of how others feel also helps them understand themselves. Learning how to manage emotions is very important during adolescence. Teens need to know that positive emotions can help them succeed at work and in relationships, while negative emotions can harm these areas. Parents and adults can help by listening, showing care, and creating a safe space for teens to talk about their feelings. Learning to manage emotions during adolescence helps teens handle emotional challenges in adulthood.

Question 58

Pers dev: Career choice

Answer 58

Adolescence is an important time for career development. Choosing and preparing for a future job is one of the biggest and most complex tasks during this stage. This decision helps teenagers form their identity and begin thinking about their future adult roles. The question “Who am I?” often becomes “What do I want to do with my life?” Career choices can have a big impact on a person’s future and overall well-being. However, choosing a career is not easy. It requires teens to explore different job options and think deeply about their own interests, strengths, and values. Often, they must make decisions about school subjects early on, even before fully understanding what different careers involve. At this stage, their interests and abilities are still changing, and they might choose careers based on money or outside pressure rather than true interest. Family, friends, and teachers often give mixed advice, which can cause more confusion. Many South African youths, especially those from townships, face added challenges such as poverty, poor schools, and limited job opportunities.

Question 59

Pers dev: Career Development Stages in Childhood:

Answer 59

 Career Exploration: Children start exploring careers based on their interests, values, and what they see around them. Girls often explore fewer career options than boys but may decide earlier.  Career Awareness: By around age 10 or 11, children have a better understanding of jobs, including salaries and training. Poor children may see fewer job possibilities and hold more traditional views on gender roles.  Career Aspirations: As children grow, they dream about more types of jobs. Boys tend to dream of a wider range of jobs, while girls often dream of jobs that are more common for women. The media, family, and friends influence their choices more than teachers do.  Vocational Interests: Interests in certain careers change with age and become more stable in early adulthood. Children are more interested in careers they feel good at.  Career Maturity: As children grow older, they become more realistic about jobs and show stronger career goals. Teens from wealthier families usually show more career maturity.

Question 60

Pers dev: Adolescents' Career Development

Answer 60

Teenagers go through three main stages when choosing a career: 1. Exploratory Stage: They start thinking about their interests and abilities. 2. Crystallisation Stage: They begin to seriously consider possible career paths. 3. Specification Stage: They make a more definite decision and commit to a career path. As they grow, teens also develop career resilience, confidence in their skills and persistence even when things get hard. However, many older teens and young adults still don’t know what they want to do. Some take a gap year to explore jobs or travel before deciding. A global study found that 40% of adults in sub-Saharan Africa were unhappy in their jobs. This shows how important it is to make a good career choice early on. Parents and schools play a key role in helping young people with career guidance, which should be taken seriously.

Question 61

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Answer 61

It is important to keep in mind that all aspects of adolescent development, i.e. physical, sexual cognitive, personality, social and moral development, occur in a social context that may either promote or hamper development. During adolescence, this social context is formed and influenced by various variables, especially parents or caregivers, peers, and communication technologies.

Question 62

Social development The parent-adolescent relationship

Answer 62

In the past, psychologists mostly focused on how teenagers pull away from their parents, the conflicts that happen between them, and how teens try to become more independent. These days, there’s a more balanced view. Experts now also highlight the strong bonds that often still exist between teens and their parents, and how parents can be a valuable support system as teens face more complex social situations. Some conflict is seen as a normal part of growing up.

Question 63

Social development Parent-adolescent conflict

Answer 63

People often think of the teen years as full of fights and stress between parents and teens. While some conflict is normal, it's not always as bad as it seems. Research shows that parent- child relationships do change in early adolescence. Teens start questioning their parents' rules and values, become closer to their friends, and argue more. Parents may feel hurt by this and respond by trying to control their child more, which can lead to more conflict. These arguments are usually strongest in early adolescence and tend to ease as teens get older. Long-lasting conflict might have started before the teen years and may not be caused only by adolescence. Teens often argue more with their mothers than with their fathers because moms are usually more involved in daily life and may be stricter. Girls also often face more rules than boys, which can lead to more conflict with their parents. Personality differences—like strict parents or stubborn teens—can also add to the problem.

Question 64

Social development There are many reasons why conflict increases during early adolescence:

Answer 64

a) Puberty and hormone changes can affect mood. b) Teens start to think more deeply and question things. c) They may believe their parents don’t understand them. d) They're figuring out who they are and trying new things. e) They want more independence. f) Parents may be going through their own midlife changes at the same time. Even though these changes can cause stress, most teens still share core values like religion and education with their parents because they come from the same cultural background. The so-called "generation gap" often just shows up in small things like music, fashion, or tidiness, not in deeper values. Teens usually care more about what their friends think in these areas. In reality, most teens get along well with their parents and respect them. A bit of conflict is normal and even healthy. It helps teens learn how to make decisions, understand values, and become more mature.

Question 65

Social development Autonomy and attachment

Answer 65

Adolescents' Need for Independence and Their Relationship with Parents Many arguments between teens and their parents happen because teens want more independence. Becoming independent is a big part of growing up, just like figuring out who they are (identity). Teens who grow in independence often have better mental health, higher self-esteem, and are better at making their own decisions and managing their behaviour. However, when teens try to be more independent, parents often respond by trying to control them more. Teens may then rebel, feeling like being a teenager means being free and doing what they want. Some even turn to risky behaviours (like smoking or drinking) to feel more grown-up. 215 How Teens View Their Parents A study by Bester found that teens who are more self-focused (egocentric) often have poor relationships with their parents. These teens might feel like their parents don’t understand them and that their problems are too unique for anyone to relate to. This kind of thinking is not always realistic, and it can cause more conflict and risk-taking. Bester suggests counselling when these attitudes cause serious issues. Types of Autonomy Teens Develop  Cognitive autonomy: Thinking for themselves and making their own choices.  Behavioural autonomy: Acting on their own, such as choosing friends or hobbies.  Emotional autonomy: Managing emotions and not relying on parents for everything.  Moral/value autonomy: Developing their own beliefs and values, especially about right and wrong. Even though teens want independence, they often feel unsure about all the new choices they face. So, they sometimes act like adults and other times like children. Similarly, parents may treat their teens like children one moment and like adults the next. This confusion is normal but can lead to mixed messages. Parents’ Role in Supporting Autonomy Parents should support independence by slowly giving teens more responsibility. For example, let them choose their friends but help guide big decisions like careers. This builds confidence and decision-making skills. Staying Close While Growing Apart It’s important for teens to stay emotionally connected to their parents, even as they grow more independent. A strong relationship helps teens feel safe and supported, and lowers the 216 chance of risky behaviour. Teens with secure attachment are better at building healthy relationships and have higher self-esteem. Even though teens want space, they may still feel anxious about being away from home, like during their first year of university. Those with a secure bond to their parents usually handle this separation better.

Question 66

Social development Parenting styles

Answer 66

Parenting styles are important in how children grow, and they continue to affect teenagers. How teens behave socially and mature depends a lot on how their parents raise them. Research shows that:  Parents who set rules and show love (instead of being harsh or cold) help teens develop better social skills.  There are four main parenting styles: 1. Authoritative: Parents set rules but explain them. They let teens have a say and show love and care. Teens raised this way are responsible and socially confident. 2. Authoritarian: Parents are strict and don't explain rules. Teens have to follow rules without discussion. This can lead to anxiety, poor social skills, and lack of independence. 3. Permissive: Parents allow teens to do what they want. These teens may struggle with self-control and making good choices. 4. Neglectful: Parents are uninvolved and cold. Their teens often act out, struggle emotionally, and may develop problems like addiction or depression. Even though the authoritative style is seen as the best, most parents use a mix of styles depending on the situation. 217 The relationship between the parent and teen also matters. A loving relationship can soften the negative effects of a strict (authoritarian) style. Sometimes, a stricter style is needed when life is tough.

Question 67

Social development Two Key Dimensions of Parenting

Answer 67

1. 2. Love vs. Hostility: Loving parents show care and trust, use less punishment, and help teens grow with confidence. Hostile parents are rejecting, and their teens may struggle with behaviour and relationships. Autonomy vs. Control: Some parents give teens freedom while still guiding them. These teens tend to be confident and responsible. Over-controlling parents don’t communicate well, and their teens may feel insecure, dependent, or even depressed.

Question 68

Social development There are two types of control:

Answer 68

1. 2. Behavioural control: Parents set rules and monitor behaviour in a fair way. This helps teens. Psychological control: Parents try to control their children using guilt or overprotection. This is harmful.

Question 69

Social development Parent–Teen Relationships

Answer 69

Parenting is not one-sided. Teens also affect how parents behave. For example, a difficult teen may cause a parent to become more strict or to give up. In families with more than one teen, siblings often have different views of the same parent, showing that teens' own personalities also play a role.

Question 70

Social development Cultural Differences

Answer 70

In Western cultures, authoritative parenting (rules + discussion) is encouraged. In many traditional cultures, parents expect to be obeyed without needing to explain. Respect for parents is taught early and strongly. Even so, studies show that when parents try to control personal choices (like clothing or music), teens in all cultures may feel stressed. But when parents guide teens on important matters (like safety), teens in all cultures appreciate it. The key is the type of control. Supportive rules help teens; forceful control harms them.

Question 71

Social development Role of grandparents

Answer 71

Grandparents often help raise children, especially in families where parents struggle. They provide emotional support, serve as role models, and help teens develop social and caring skills. Teens with strong bonds with grandparents tend to be more well-adjusted. A study in Cape Town found that maternal grandmothers were linked to more kind and helpful behaviour in teens. This was true across different income levels and backgrounds. Teens may copy the warmth and love they receive from grandparents.

Question 72

Social development Peer group relationships

Answer 72

Teenagers really want to feel like they belong. That’s why they become more focused on spending time with their friends and peer group. These social interactions, including with friends and romantic partners, help teens grow emotionally and mentally, beyond just family relationships. Being part of a peer group helps them learn social skills, get emotional support, and feel good about themselves. In many ways, the peer group acts like its own culture, helping teens move from being children to becoming adults. Friendships and peer relationships change a lot during the teen years. These changes include how groups are formed, how they function, and how romantic relationships begin. These topics are explained in the sections below

Question 73

Social development The structure of the peer group

Answer 73

As teenagers grow, their friend groups (peer groups) become more organized and selective compared to when they were younger. The process usually happens in stages:  Stage 1: In early adolescence, boys and girls form small, same-gender friendship groups called cliques. These cliques have about 5–7 members who are the same age and have similar interests. They help teens feel like they belong and give them a temporary sense of identity.  Stage 2: Girls’ and boys’ cliques begin to mix. Teens start feeling more comfortable talking to the opposite gender when they’re with their own friends.  Stage 3: The more popular boys and girls form mixed-gender cliques.  Stage 4: More teens join in, and larger mixed-gender groups form, called crowds. These crowds often share values and enjoy similar activities like parties.  Stage 5: In late adolescence, large crowds become less important. Teens begin focusing more on individual romantic relationships, often going out as couples or in small groups. Not all teens are part of peer groups. Some are easily accepted because they’re kind, fun, confident, or helpful. Others might be ignored or rejected because they’re shy, aggressive, or don’t get along with others. Rejected teens often feel lonely and have low self-esteem, which can lead to school and behaviour problems. Some teens choose not to join a group because they know who they are and what they want. They may only have one close friend and are okay with that. Being shy or introverted can also be a reason. Being left out or bullied by peers can hurt a teen’s mental health and make them feel anxious or lonely. But even teens with many friends can feel lonely if they don’t feel truly connected. Loneliness depends a lot on how a teen sees their social world , as friendly or unfriendly.

Question 74

Social development Conformity and Peer Pressure

Answer 74

Teenagers often try to fit in with their peer group. Conformity means changing your behaviour or beliefs to match the group, even if you don’t fully agree with them. Peer pressure can strongly influence how teens act.

Question 75

Social development Loneliness in Adolescence

Answer 75

Loneliness is when someone feels like they don’t have enough close, supportive relationships. Everyone feels lonely sometimes, and if the situation changes, the feeling usually goes away. But for some teens, loneliness can last a long time and affect their mental and physical health. Teens who are shy, unsure of themselves, or have low self-esteem may struggle to make friends. This can become a cycle: they expect others to reject them, act distant, and then really do get left out, which makes them feel even more lonely. Loneliness can also run in families and be linked to problems like depression, anxiety, or family conflict. Bullying can make loneliness worse because lonely teens are often seen as easy targets. Sadly, many lonely teens don’t ask for help. They feel hopeless or prefer to deal with their problems alone, which only increases their feelings of being alone.

Question 76

Social development Conformity

Answer 76

During adolescence, teens are more likely to conform — this means changing their behaviour, beliefs, or attitudes to fit in with a group. This can happen even if they don’t truly agree with the group. Peer pressure often causes this. Conformity can be positive or negative, depending on the situation and the teen’s age or needs. 221 Psychologists describe three types of conformity: 1. Compliance – Changing behaviour to fit in, but not changing personal beliefs. This is short-term. Example: Saying you like jazz because your friends do, even though you don’t. 2. Identification – Changing both behaviour and beliefs, but only while around the group. Example: Becoming vegetarian with your friends but eating meat when they’re not around. 3. Internalisation – Deep, long-term change in both behaviour and belief. Example: Becoming a committed Christian due to group influence, even after leaving the group. Younger teens tend to conform more because they seek approval and have less confidence to make their own choices. Conforming helps them feel safe and supported as they learn to become more independent. Interestingly, teens who conformed more to group expectations often reported better mental and physical health later on. Several things can affect whether someone conforms: 1. Task difficulty – Not knowing what to do makes people more likely to follow others. 2. Individual traits – People with strong goals or leadership qualities are less likely to conform. 3. Group size – Conformity is more likely in groups of 3 to 5 people. 4. Unclear situations – When people don’t know what to do, they are more likely to follow others. 5. Culture – People from cultures that value the group over the individual conform more. 6. Gender – For example, girls are more likely to follow school rules than boys. Parents often worry about peer influence and losing their say in their child’s life. But even though friends matter more during adolescence, parents still have a strong influence, especially on values like right and wrong. 222 However, too much conformity can be harmful. Teens may take part in risky behaviour like smoking, drinking, or unsafe sex. This isn’t just peer pressure, it’s influenced by many things, including personality, family, and social background. Parenting style matters too. Overly strict or too-lenient parents may push teens toward unhealthy peer groups. The best approach is being warm, supportive, and firm, this helps teens adopt positive values and form healthy friendships. If the parent-teen relationship is bad, teens may turn to harmful groups like gangs.

Question 77

Social development Loneliness in Adolescence

Answer 77

Loneliness is emotional pain caused by feeling disconnected from others. Everyone feels lonely sometimes, but when it lasts a long time, it can harm a person's mental and physical health and even shorten life expectancy. Teenagers report high levels of loneliness, which is now seen as more common than before. Traits like shyness, low self-confidence, and poor self-esteem, which are common in adolescence, can make it harder to build friendships. It’s not always clear if loneliness causes these traits or if these traits lead to loneliness. People also see their social world differently, some may feel lonely even if they aren’t actually alone. Loneliness can lead to negative expectations, like thinking others will reject you. This leads to guarded behaviour that makes relationships harder, creating a vicious cycle. Loneliness is also influenced by genes, mental health problems like anxiety or depression, and family conflict. Bullying is a major cause of loneliness in teens because bullies often target those who seem isolated. Sadly, lonely teens often don’t ask for help. They may feel hopeless or distrustful and prefer to handle things alone, which makes their loneliness worse.

Question 78

Social dev: Friendships

Answer 78

In early childhood, friendships are mostly about playing together. In middle childhood, children start to value spending time together and being loyal. In adolescence, friendships 223 become deeper and are based on shared interests, values, and personalities. Teenagers choose friends who are like them. Having close friends is an important part of growing up during the teen years. Good friendships in high school are linked to long-term emotional and mental health. Teenagers want friendships that allow them to share personal feelings and thoughts. This closeness builds emotional bonds based on trust, understanding, and support. Teens often prefer talking to friends rather than parents about changes in their bodies and feelings. Close friendships help teens:  Deal with challenges like school stress, body changes, and relationships.  Avoid feeling lonely and help them understand themselves better.  Learn to share their feelings and care about others, which helps them grow as people. These friendships grow stronger as teens develop physically, think more deeply, and become more socially aware. They become better at understanding others and giving emotional support, which helps keep friendships strong.

Question 79

Soc dev Social Media and Friendships

Answer 79

Social media has changed how teens make and keep friends. It helps in the following ways:  Shy teens may feel more comfortable speaking online because they feel less judged.  Looks matter less when chatting online, so people focus more on shared interests.  Teens can control when and with whom they interact.  It’s easier to find like-minded friends online.  Teens can stay connected all day, but this can also interfere with school and sleep. Online communication mostly helps existing friendships grow stronger. Socially skilled teens benefit the most, but lonely or shy teens may also benefit because they feel safer opening up online. This is called the social compensation hypothesis. 224 However, social media can also have negative effects. It can lead to things like online bullying, spending too much time online, or being taken advantage of. That’s why parents need to talk to their teens about using the internet safely. Families that use media together positively can also improve their relationships and friendships.

Question 80

Soc dev Teens and Parents

Answer 80

Do teens stop caring about their parents when they get closer to friends? Usually, there is a bit of distance as teens want more privacy and time with friends. But this doesn't mean they love their parents less. Later in adolescence, close friendships may become less intense as teens learn more about themselves and become more independent. Romantic relationships may also start to become more important.

Question 81

Soc dev Romantic relationships

Answer 81

Adolescence is a key time for the development of romantic relationships, largely influenced by hormonal changes. These relationships are typically short-term but play a significant role in adolescents' social lives and emotional well-being. They contribute to identity formation and affect peer and family dynamics. Stages of Romantic Development:  Stage 1 (12–14 years): Adolescents begin exploring romantic feelings, moving from same-gender groups to mixed-gender ones. They engage in social activities like movies and parties with both boys and girls.  Stage 2 (15–17 years): Group dating becomes common. Romantic relationships at this stage are casual and often more about companionship within the peer group than emotional intimacy.  Stage 3 (18–20 years): Adolescents seek deeper emotional connections. These relationships tend to last longer, are more serious, and may challenge their individual sense of self. Resolving conflicts is key to a healthy relationship. Studies show that adolescents with supportive parents tend to have higher-quality romantic relationships. Positive parent involvement is linked to empathy, better conflict resolution, and 225 overall relationship satisfaction. Negative experiences with parents can lead to difficulties in romantic relationships later. Romantic relationships are also influenced by culture, community, and social context. Early serious relationships may reduce interactions with same-gender peers, affecting social development. There are also risks like early sexual activity, unplanned pregnancies, and exposure to HIV/AIDS. For girls, casual group activities can have a positive impact, while serious dating may cause anxiety about sexual pressure. As adolescents get older, steady relationships can offer security and teach valuable relationship skills, like communication and conflict resolution. Adolescents enter romantic relationships for various reasons, including fun, prestige, and shared interests. Boys and girls prioritize qualities like attractiveness, personality, and compatibility. Girls often fantasize about lasting love, while boys may focus on sexual aspects. Research on LGBTQ+ adolescents shows that their romantic experiences are similar to those of heterosexual peers, though they face additional challenges related to stigma and discrimination. Support from family and peers is crucial for positive relationships. In South Africa, violence in adolescent romantic relationships is a significant issue, with physical aggression sometimes seen as normal. Factors like inequality, exposure to violence, and mental health issues contribute to this problem. Addressing these challenges is vital for fostering healthier relationships. Finally, while many romantic relationships end after high school, those that persist can help young people grow emotionally, develop empathy, and strengthen their identity.

Question 82

Soc dev Adolescents and cyberspace

Answer 82

Cyberspace refers to the digital world where people can communicate and access information globally. In adolescence, technologies like the internet and cell phones become key tools for social interaction. By age 13 to 17, social media usage is high, with 92% of adolescents engaging online. Parents often worry about their teens' use of these technologies because they 226 mainly use them for entertainment, whereas adults usually see them as tools for communication or information. Adolescents use digital technologies to fulfil developmental needs, such as: 1. Identity Exploration: Adolescents use cyberspace to explore who they are, what they want, and what relationships they desire. They can try out different identities online. 2. Intimacy and Belonging: Teens form intimate relationships and seek social groups for a sense of belonging. The internet allows them to connect with many different people, and cell phones help organize social lives. A phone also signals social connection and status. 3. Independence: Adolescents seek to separate from their families, and cyberspace offers a way to explore independence while staying connected to home. The internet provides both freedom and a safe space for growth. 4. Social Coordination: Cell phones help adolescents stay connected with friends and manage their social lives more flexibly than landlines, which used to cause household disputes. While concerns exist that digital technologies may weaken parent-child relationships, research suggests that healthy relationships are influenced more by family dynamics than technology use. Parents' values can shape how teens engage with digital tools. Other reasons teens use technology include:  Venting Frustrations: Adolescents may use cyberspace to release emotional stress, which can include venting frustrations or expressing anger.  Mastery and Accomplishment: Digital tools allow teens to develop skills, such as creating websites or editing photos. These skills boost their self-esteem and social status.  Information and Identity: The internet offers a wealth of knowledge, helping teens build their identities by exploring new ideas and acquiring knowledge. Teen-specific communication styles, like "text talk," further support their sense of belonging to a peer group. 227 However, there are risks, such as:  Decreased Well-Being: Excessive screen time can negatively affect teens' mental health and physical well-being, leading to problems like obesity.  Exposure to Negative Content: Teens may encounter harmful material like pornography or violence, and the anonymity of cyberspace can encourage inappropriate behaviours like cyberbullying.  Cyberbullying: The rise of online bullying is a significant concern, as it can cause harm to others through digital means such as text messages or social media posts.  Vulnerabilities: Adolescents can be manipulated by online predators or join harmful online groups.  Cybersex and Sexting: Some teens engage in cybersex or sexting, exchanging explicit messages or images online. This behaviour raises concerns about safety and emotional development.  Internet Addiction: Teens may become addicted to the internet, leading to social isolation, neglect of responsibilities, and reduced self-control. Despite these risks, the problems may reflect broader life issues, not just technology use. Technology provides an escape for those facing difficulties, and bullying or inappropriate behaviour may be linked to emotional challenges.

Question 83

Soc dev: Guidelines for Parents:

Answer 83

a) b) c) Start Conversations Early: Discuss safe and positive online behaviour before adolescence. Acknowledge Both Sides: Recognize that ICT is both beneficial and potentially harmful, and guide children in balancing their online activities. Be a Role Model: Set an example by balancing digital and offline life, and establish tech-free zones at home. 228 d) e) Learn About Technology: Parents should stay informed about digital tools to better guide their children. Monitor and Stay Involved: Show interest in your child’s online life and set boundaries as needed.

Question 84

Soc dev: Moral development

Answer 84

Adolescents face the important task of developing a personal value system. As they engage more socially, their values guide their behaviour and help them act responsibly. To create this value system, adolescents question existing values, decide which ones they accept, and integrate them into their own beliefs. However, society often views adolescents as morally lacking, partly due to increased rule-breaking during this period. Despite this, adolescence is crucial for developing abstract thinking skills, allowing adolescents to adopt and integrate moral principles. As their lives grow more complex, they also develop moral qualities and abilities. Moral development involves changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviours related to right and wrong. It has two dimensions: intrapersonal (how individuals think and behave alone) and interpersonal (how they act and feel when interacting with others). Adolescents develop their moral identity through daily experiences, decision-making, and handling social challenges. These experiences help form the foundation for mature moral character and identity. This section explores how adolescents reason about ethics, behave in moral situations, experience moral emotions, and develop a moral self-identity.

Question 85

Soc dev: Moral reasoning

Answer 85

Moral reasoning is the study of how people think about what is right or wrong and how they learn and use moral rules. Jean Piaget had ideas on how children's moral reasoning develops, but Lawrence Kohlberg made a major contribution to understanding moral development in adolescence. Kohlberg's theory is based on cognitive development, and he suggested that moral reasoning progresses through three levels, each with two stages: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. These levels align with Piaget’s stages of cognitive 229 development. However, reaching a cognitive stage doesn’t guarantee reaching the corresponding moral stage. Kohlberg also emphasized that no one can skip any stage in moral development. 1. Level I (Pre-conventional) is usually achieved in childhood. 2. Level II (Conventional morality), where an individual follows social norms and expectations, develops during adolescence and adulthood. Here, behaviour is judged based on motives and societal rules. o Stage 3: Moral behaviour is based on gaining approval from others. o Stage 4: Correct behaviour is linked to fulfilling duties and respecting authority. 3. Level III (Post-conventional) is the highest moral development, where individuals define their moral principles based on personal values, not societal norms. People at this level assess moral issues with abstract principles like justice and human dignity. o Stage 5: Moral behaviour is defined by laws and individual rights, and laws can change if they no longer serve the common good. o Stage 6: People make decisions based on universal ethical principles like justice and equality. Evaluation of Kohlberg’s Theory: Kohlberg’s theory has had a significant impact on understanding moral reasoning in children and adults, with research supporting the idea that individuals move through stages in a specific order. However, some criticisms include:  Gender bias: Kohlberg's research mostly used male participants, and his theory may reflect male moral reasoning more than female reasoning, which may focus on responsibilities and relationships rather than justice.  Methodology: The research's reliability and validity have been questioned. For example, Kohlberg used hypothetical dilemmas, which may not reflect real-life moral decisions. Moreover, moral reasoning does not always align with actual behaviour. 230  Cultural bias: Kohlberg assumed that his stages are universal, but research shows that moral reasoning may vary across cultures, especially between individualistic and collectivist societies.  Overemphasis on cognitive development: Kohlberg focused mainly on cognitive reasoning, but other factors, like emotions and personal experiences, also influence moral behaviour. Overall, Kohlberg’s theory has shaped moral development research, but it has limitations and is challenged by more recent findings.

Question 86

Soc dev theories

Answer 86

Kohlberg James Rest: Four-Component Model of Morality Albert Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Thought and Action

Question 87

Soc dev: Moral behaviour

Answer 87

One criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that he didn't adequately link moral thinking to moral behaviour. Other factors, like personal and environmental influences, should be considered in how people behave morally. Two models that address this are Rest's four-component model of morality and Bandura's social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. James Rest: Four-Component Model of Morality Rest (1986, 1994) argued that moral reasoning alone isn't enough to explain moral behaviour. His model includes four components: 1. Moral Sensitivity: Recognizing a situation as moral, understanding how your actions affect others, and considering potential outcomes (e.g., knowing that drinking and driving can cause harm). 2. Moral Judgement: Deciding which actions are the best and most morally justifiable (e.g., choosing not to drink at a party because you need to drive safely). 3. Moral Motivation: Being motivated to act according to moral principles, even when it's hard (e.g., choosing to be with non-drinkers to avoid pressure to drink). 4. Moral Character: The ability to act on your moral decisions despite challenges, like peer pressure (e.g., sticking to your decision not to drink because you're the designated driver). 231 Rest’s model has been used in many fields to design ethics programs. These moral components can be promoted through activities like perspective-taking, reasoning about right and wrong, and implementing moral choices.

Question 88

Albert Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Thought and Action

Answer 88

Bandura's (1999) theory focuses on three factors that influence moral behaviour: behaviour, cognition, and personal and environmental factors. According to Bandura, people learn moral values by observing and imitating others, such as parents or peers. During adolescence, individuals begin to question the values taught by parents and develop their own moral system. Bandura (2006) later introduced the idea of moral agency, where people actively choose actions based on their values, monitoring their behaviour and judging it against personal moral standards. People regulate their actions based on anticipated consequences, feeling self-pride for good actions or self-blame for bad ones. However, people sometimes engage in behaviour that goes against their values without feeling guilty, a concept called moral disengagement. This is when individuals justify unethical actions and disconnect from their personal values (e.g., rationalizing rule-breaking because "everyone does it" or "I'll never get caught"). This can lead to harmful behaviour, especially in adolescence.

Question 89

Soc dev: Positive and Negative Moral Behaviour

Answer 89

Moral behaviour includes both positive actions (e.g., helping others, being kind) and negative actions (e.g., lying, stealing, bullying). Helping behaviour is a broad term that includes supporting others, while prosocial behaviour involves actions that benefit others, like donating or sharing. Altruism is a specific type of prosocial behaviour where individuals prioritize others' needs over their own. Research shows that engaging in prosocial behaviour is linked to positive outcomes, such as higher self-esteem and better relationships. However, changes in the brain during adolescence 232 may temporarily reduce the ability to regulate emotions, which can impact prosocial tendencies.

Question 90

Soc dev Moral Disengagement Mechanisms

Answer 90

Here are some common ways people justify unethical actions: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Moral justification: Making harmful actions seem morally acceptable (e.g., "It’s for the greater good"). Euphemistic language: Using neutral language to downplay unethical behaviour (e.g., "I'm just borrowing it"). Distortion of consequences: Minimizing the harm caused by unethical actions (e.g., "It's not a big deal"). Advantageous comparison: Comparing unethical behaviour to worse actions to make it seem acceptable (e.g., "At least we’re not doing what they’re doing"). Dehumanisation: Seeing the victim as less human to reduce empathy (e.g., "They deserve it"). Diffusion of responsibility: Shifting responsibility to a group (e.g., "Everybody is doing it"). Attribution of blame: Blaming the victim for the harm caused (e.g., "They deserved it"). pg 234

Question 91

soc dev: moral emotions

Answer 91

Moral emotions play a key role in how adolescents make moral decisions and understand right and wrong. These emotions, like love, sympathy, anger, fear, guilt, and shame, influence how adolescents evaluate their actions and those of others. As adolescents grow, they become better at recognizing their own and others' emotions, but they don't apply abstract moral principles in a detached way. Both positive and negative emotions contribute to their moral development. However, moral emotions alone are not enough to drive moral actions. They are connected to cognitive (thinking) and social aspects of development, as well as personality traits like moral identity and character. Emotions can vary in intensity; for instance, too little guilt is harmful, 234 but excessive guilt can also be problematic. Healthy moral development involves flexibility, recognizing that different situations and relationships require different emotional responses. The social domain theory looks at how different social factors influence moral thinking. It divides these factors into three areas: 1. Morality: Concerns justice, rights, and ethical rules, such as prohibitions against lying or stealing. 2. Social conventions: Covers social norms, like traffic rules or raising a hand in class. 3. Personal issues: Relates to private choices, such as who to be friends with or how to spend free time. As adolescents grow, they begin to understand that moral decisions are not just about following rules but also about considering the situation. They also develop a clearer sense of what is a personal choice versus a moral issue. Their moral judgments become more complex, considering different contexts. Research in this area shows that emotions play a part in moral decisions, especially regarding aggression and behaviour problems. Although adolescents can show empathy, they do not always do so, and their emotional reactions to aggression can vary widely.

Question 92

Soc dev: Moral personality

Answer 92

Moral development includes three key aspects: reasoning, behaviour, and emotions. While moral reasoning has been the main focus, a person's personality also influences their moral behaviour. Traditionally, most theorists believed that situations were more important than personality traits in predicting behaviour, and there was little focus on what makes up a moral personality. However, in recent years, researchers have become more interested in studying how moral judgment relates to personality, self-concept, and identity. Moral identity refers to how important being a moral person is to someone's self-concept. It is seen as the link between moral judgment and moral action. Even if someone believes in moral values, they may still act immorally, which could be due to their moral identity. 235 According to moral identity theory, people who strongly identify with their moral values will act according to them to avoid cognitive dissonance, or feeling uncomfortable about their actions. People with a strong moral identity align their moral goals with their personal goals, making them less likely to face a conflict between the two. Moral identity begins to develop in adolescence, merging with identity development. As children follow rules, they start seeing themselves as "good" individuals. The feelings that support moral identity, like empathy, shame, and guilt, begin early in life. During adolescence, as people develop a stronger sense of responsibility, self-understanding, and the ability to understand others' perspectives, they integrate morality and identity more fully. Mature moral individuals engage in moral metacognition, which involves reflecting on and regulating their own thinking to prevent moral disengagement. The formation of moral identity is influenced by personal traits, life experiences, and opportunities to act morally. These include academic success, self-discipline, empathy, prosocial reasoning, and a positive personality.

Question 93

Factors that influence the development of adolescents

Answer 93

Cognition  Adolescents' ability to think abstractly and consider different perspectives helps them develop a personal value system. Cognitive skills, like role-taking (understanding others' viewpoints), are linked to moral reasoning. However, high cognitive ability doesn’t guarantee moral behaviour, as some criminals have excellent cognitive skills. Personality  Open-mindedness and a willingness to adapt to new experiences are important for moral development. Adolescents who are more open socially are exposed to different perspectives, which enhances their moral understanding. Traits like empathy, agreeableness, and conscientiousness also support positive moral behaviour. 236 Parental Attitudes and Actions  Adolescents internalize moral values based on their parents' attitudes and actions. Parents who engage in moral discussions and model respect, responsibility, and cooperation help their children develop moral maturity. A warm, supportive parenting style promotes moral development. Peer Interaction  Interaction with peers helps adolescents develop moral reasoning. Peer discussions expose adolescents to different viewpoints and moral dilemmas, especially in intimate relationships. However, poor peer relationships can hinder moral development, as adolescents in low-value peer groups may struggle with moral judgment. Religion  Religious involvement can influence moral development. Religious adolescents tend to have greater moral responsibility and empathy for others. Religion provides moral guidance and a sense of community, though it can also be harmful if misused, such as in cults with hidden agendas. Schooling  Teachers play a key role in adolescents' moral development. Schools that promote democratic decision-making, respect for others, and responsibility contribute to moral growth. Exposure to diverse perspectives through education can advance moral reasoning. However, teachers must avoid imposing their own values on students. Cultural Context  Culture influences moral development by shaping the values considered important. While all cultures maintain moral norms, the meaning of specific values varies. Understanding the role of culture in moral development is complex due to diverse moral standards within and across societies.  Despite these influences, not all adolescents reach moral maturity. Moral immaturity can involve egocentrism (focusing only on one's own perspective) and the unquestioning acceptance of others' values (rather than developing independent moral beliefs). Individual autonomy is seen as contributing to moral changes, with adolescents increasingly relying on personal convictions rather than institutional rules. This shift may reflect moral self-relevance, where morality becomes central to one's identity.