Chapter 5 Middle Childhood Flashcards

Question

Piaget Cognitive Advancements:

Answer 1

 Egocentrism reduces as children interact more with peers and see other perspectives.  They develop the ability to decentre—focusing on multiple aspects of a situation.  They gain logical, flexible thinking, but it is still limited to concrete (real, tangible) experiences; abstract or hypothetical thinking is still beyond them.

Answer 2

 Children may master some conservation tasks earlier than others, despite the same underlying principle, showing uneven cognitive development.

Answer 3

 Piaget’s stages are generally supported across cultures, including African contexts, but cultural practices, schooling, and parental education influence the rate of cognitive development.  African children may succeed in tasks but explain them using concrete and functional reasoning due to language limitations or differing cultural categorizations.

Answer 4

 Muthivhi challenges ideas of “cognitive lag,” emphasizing that children’s reasoning reflects cultural and social contexts.  Children in rural areas may think and reason differently due to traditional influences and language barriers, which affect performance on standard tasks.  There's a need for educational systems to better support formal learning language development and to value diverse reasoning styles as developmental steps.

Answer 5

 Piaget: Cognitive development through equilibration (adjusting mental schemas for better assimilation).  Information-processing theory: Development occurs through multiple mechanisms, not just equilibration.

Answer 6

Memory  Working memory improves with age. o Phonological loop: Handles verbal/auditory info (important for reading, language). o Visual-spatial sketchpad: Manages visual/spatial info (e.g., shape, location).  Memory strategies develop: o Rehearsal, organization, elaboration.  Long-term memory becomes more efficient.  Age-related memory development: o Under 2: Implicit memory. o 2–5: Rote memory, limited understanding. o 5–7: Basic strategies (e.g., rehearsal). o 7–9: Use of visual/auditory cues. o 9–11: Self-developed strategies and adaptability. Processing Speed  Increases with age → faster, more efficient thinking. 77  Crucial for tasks needing quick thinking (e.g., reading, problem-solving). Automatic Processing (Automaticity)  Requires little cognitive effort (e.g., instant recall of multiplication facts).  Frees up capacity for higher-level tasks (e.g., comprehension in reading). Knowledge Base  Rapid increase in factual knowledge from school, media, life.  Better-structured knowledge aids memory and learning.  More prior knowledge = easier and faster learning. Executive Functions (Control Processes)  Includes planning, decision-making, abstract thinking, problem-solving, and inhibition.  Involves the prefrontal cortex.  Important components: o Metacognition: Understanding one’s thinking and learning. o Metamemory: Understanding memory functions and strategies.  Deficits linked to disorders like ADHD and learning difficulties. Theory of Mind  Understanding how one’s and others' mental states influence behaviour.  By age 9: o Recognize thought diversity. o Understand mixed emotions. o Think more accurately and deeply about self and others. Higher-Order Cognitive Skills  Reasoning, decision-making, problem-solving, reading, writing, maths.  Use of previously acquired and processed knowledge.

Answer 7

 Working memory predicts academic performance.  Poor working memory linked to inattention and distractibility.  Teaching should include: o Strategy training (e.g., organizing, planning). o Breaking tasks into smaller components.

Answer 8

 Explains complexity and precision of thought.  Uses rigorous methods

Answer 9

 Lacks focus on contextual factors like: o Goals, social context, emotions. o Socioeconomic status (SES) impacts working memory (e.g., chronic stress in poverty reduces memory efficiency).Language development

Answer 10

Slower but Significant Progress:  After age 4–5, language development slows but continues significantly during middle childhood. Improved Pronunciation and Sentence Structure:  Children produce longer, more complex sentences.  They master complex grammatical structures (e.g., passive voice and conditional sentences). Expanded Vocabulary and Word Meaning:  Vocabulary increases rapidly.  Children understand both concrete and abstract meanings of words.  By age 8–9, they start grasping sarcasm, relying on tone of voice. Figurative Language Understanding:  School-aged children comprehend metaphors, irony, and figurative speech.  By age 7, they understand that what is said and what is meant may differ. Wordplay and Humour:  They enjoy jokes, riddles, and wordplay based on double meanings.  Increased experimentation with language for fun and creativity. 80 Nonverbal Communication:  Better understanding and use of facial expressions and gestures alongside spoken language. Pragmatics and Social Use of Language:  Children adapt language depending on social context (e.g., more polite with teachers than peers).  They begin to recognize and value proper speech and may correct or mock others' language use.

Answer 11

Essentially, language development in middle childhood is a refinement of language skills acquired in earlier years. However, this linguistic progress is striking. These developments will be discussed next.

Answer 12

Prevalence:  Nearly half the world’s population is bilingual.  Most South Africans are at least bilingual; many are multilingual. Types of Language Acquisition: 1) 2) Simultaneous bilingualism: learning two languages from birth. Successive/consecutive bilingualism: learning one language after another. Language Development Process:  Simultaneous learners usually develop both languages equally.  In successive learning, the first language initially influences the second (e.g., sentence structure and pronunciation).  Over time, the second language becomes more independent as proficiency grows.  Proficiency includes the ability to think and reason in the second language. Influencing Factors:  Age of exposure: earlier exposure leads to better mastery, especially of pronunciation and grammar.  Language similarity: similar languages (e.g., isiXhosa and isiZulu) are easier to learn.  Motivation, environment, and parental support (e.g., using both languages at home) also enhance learning.  Genetics may play a role in how easily a child learns another language.  Language proficiency needed for academic learning takes time and varies across individuals. Cognitive and Developmental Benefits:  Bilingual/multilingual children often outperform monolingual peers in:  Analytical reasoning  Creativity  Concept formation  Cognitive flexibility  Executive control skills  Learning multiple languages enhances brain function and neural development. Language Use and Identity:  Multilingual children skilfully switch between languages.  They often mix languages deliberately or when lacking vocabulary in one.  Despite speaking multiple languages, children maintain a clear linguistic identity, usually linked to their dominant or home language.

Answer 13

 Refers to performance outcomes in educational settings (schools, universities, training institutions).  Involves meeting specific goals tied to learning activities and subject mastery.

Answer 14

Cognitive Goals of Schooling:  Includes skills such as critical thinking, numeracy, literacy, science, and history.  Emphasizes the acquisition of knowledge and understanding within intellectual domains. Middle Childhood and Formal Schooling:  Middle childhood (approximately ages 7–12) is a crucial period for formal education.  In South Africa, children start formal schooling in the year they turn seven.  Grades 1 to 7 (primary school) significantly impact all areas of a child’s development, especially cognitive growth.

Answer 15

 The section centres on cognitive development theories and how they relate to academic success.  These theories offer insights into how to support children in educational environments.

Answer 16

 A child's academic success is influenced by multiple interconnected systems, not just personal ability.  Key influencing factors include:  Individual characteristics: intelligence, motivation, personality.  Microsystem: immediate environment (family, school).  Mesosystem: interactions between environments (e.g., parent-teacher communication).  Exosystem: indirect environments (e.g., school policies).  Macrosystem: broader cultural and societal messages.

Answer 17

 The first day of Grade 1 is seen as a significant milestone in a child's academic journey (Neilsen-Hewett, 2015).  Families often celebrate it with new uniforms, supplies, and photos.  Children shift their self-perception from "little children" to "big children" in a more formal learning environment.

Answer 18

 Moving from home or preschool to formal school involves emotional and social adjustments.  Children may feel fear or anxiety, especially if they did not attend preschool.  Success in transitioning is influenced by the child’s values, family, school culture, and support from stakeholders.

Answer 19

 Although theorists and educators may have differing opinions, South African parents and teachers often view readiness in terms of maturation—including physical, academic, social, and emotional development (Munnik et al., 2019).

Answer 20

1. Children’s Readiness for School:  Definition: Developmental preparedness to meet formal school demands.  Previously focused only on cognitive/physical criteria; now viewed holistically.  Assessment concerns: o Tools may have outdated norms. o Often not representative of South Africa’s diversity. o Calls for more innovative, inclusive methods. 2. Readiness of Schools for Children:  Schools must support smooth transitions and ongoing learning.  Ready schools: o Ensure continuity from early learning to primary school. o Provide quality teaching, materials, and inclusive pedagogies. o Are child-centred and responsive to diverse languages and backgrounds. o Build teacher–student relationships and apply relevant educational policies. 3. Readiness of Families for School:  Parental involvement and attitudes toward learning are crucial.  Home learning environments (e.g., singing, reading, storytelling) strongly predict school performance.  Cooperation between parents and teachers supports children’s overall development.

Answer 21

Key Domains of Child Readiness:  Physical: Gross/fine motor skills, health, toilet use, perceptual-motor development.  Cognitive: General knowledge, attention, memory, numbers/letters, language use.  Emotional: Self-regulation, emotional awareness, independence, empathy, coping with separation.  Social: Interaction with peers/teachers, cooperation, rule-following, inclusive attitudes.  Normative: Respect for authority, responsibility, manners, ability to focus, follow instructions.

Answer 22

School readiness is a complex, multidimensional concept shaped by a child's interaction with their environment and cultural experiences. In South Africa, many children begin school unprepared, particularly those from low socio-economic backgrounds where resources for early learning are limited. This contributes to high failure and dropout rates, with only about half of Grade 1 learners eventually completing Grade 12. Poor teaching quality, unqualified preschool teachers, and teacher absenteeism also hinder progress. In response, the South African government integrated Grade R into the foundation phase to improve early education. Despite slow implementation, compulsory Grade R was introduced in 2020. Research shows that school readiness strongly correlates with academic success, fosters personal development, boosts self-esteem and independence, improves peer relationships, and reduces emotional distress—ultimately supporting a child's long-term well-being and potential path out of poverty.

Answer 23

 School readiness is important, but other factors also influence academic achievement, including individual differences in cognitive development.  Children develop at different rates, reaching milestones earlier or later than peers; these differences become more visible in middle childhood during formal education.  Factors influencing academic performance include: 1) Intellectual capacity 2) Achievement motivation 3) Learning orientation

Answer 24

efers to a child's ability to think, learn, plan, and complete tasks

Answer 25

1. Intelligence vs. Cognition: o Intelligence is often confused with cognition. o Cognition is a broader concept; intelligence is a subdivision of cognition. 2. Definition Challenges: o There is no universally accepted definition of intelligence in psychology or other human sciences. o Most psychologists agree it involves the ability to learn from experience, think abstractly, solve problems, and apply knowledge in real-life situations. 3. Individual Differences: o Like personality, individuals differ in intellectual capacity. o Some people solve problems or learn more easily than others. 4. IQ Testing: o Intelligence is commonly measured using IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests. o IQ scores are shown on a bell curve:  85–115: Average  Below 85: Below average  Above 115: Above average 5. Criticism of IQ Tests: o IQ tests primarily assess abstract knowledge, not the full range of intelligences. o There is correlation with academic performance (e.g., maths and science), but intelligence is more complex. 6. Issues in South Africa: o Many intelligence tests are outdated and culturally inappropriate. o They are not normed for all population groups, risking misdiagnosis:  Children may be wrongly labelled as having intellectual disabilities.  Real learning or developmental issues may be missed.

Answer 26

1. Traditional vs. Modern View of Giftedness: o Traditionally defined by exceptionally high IQ and academic excellence. o Modern view is broader, including talents in art, music, writing, drama, sport, leadership, and more. 2. Reasons for the Shift: o IQ tests are not fully reliable or valid, influenced by cultural and educational factors. o Overemphasis on academic ability neglected other important skills like creativity. 3. Types of Giftedness: o Multiple giftedness: Excellence in several areas. o Selected giftedness: Excellence in one or two areas. 4. Characteristics of Gifted Children: o Talents are often apparent from an early age (sometimes as early as 18 months). o Have supportive adults (teachers or parents) but often self-motivated and self- taught. o Show an intense passion for their area of interest and seek knowledge independently. o Common myth: gifted individuals are maladjusted — research shows they are generally well-adjusted and less at risk for emotional or behavioural problems. o However, some do struggle with emotions, self-esteem, or social relationships. 5. Outcomes and Realities: o Many gifted children remain exceptional into adulthood, with higher education levels and incomes. o However, not all gifted children achieve expected success — talent must be nurtured. o Example: Terman study showed that two “non-gifted” children later won Nobel Prizes, while none from the gifted group did. 6. Conclusion: o Giftedness should be recognized across diverse areas, and nurtured holistically. o Attention should also be given to the social and emotional well-being of gifted children, not just their achievements.

Answer 27

 Creativity and Children: Many underestimate children's creativity, but children can be very creative and should be encouraged to develop this trait.  Definition of Creativity: Creativity is the ability to produce ideas or products that are both original and valuable — whether intangible (e.g., ideas, theories, jokes) or tangible (e.g., books, inventions, paintings).  Creative Thinking: Creative children are divergent thinkers (able to think of many possibilities) rather than convergent thinkers (who look for one correct answer).  Developmental Benefits: Creativity supports emotional, social, intellectual, and physical growth in children and reduces the risk of social and behavioural issues during adolescence.  Creativity vs Intelligence: While intelligence can support creativity, high IQ is not required for creativity. Some creative children have average or below-average IQs.  Influencing Factors: o Creativity may be heritable. o It is often seen in children from multicultural or only-child households. o Creative children are often free-thinkers who may clash with strict, dogmatic authority figures.  Nurturing Creativity: o Creativity must be cultivated through support from teachers and parents. o Democratic parenting (involving children in decisions) best supports creativity. o Authoritarian parenting is linked to low creativity. o Teachers often lack training to foster creativity effectively.

Answer 28

 Previously known as mental retardation, now called intellectual disability.  IQ below 70 alone is no longer sufficient for diagnosis due to limitations of IQ testing.  Diagnosis is based on three core criteria: 1. Significant limitations in intellectual functioning (e.g., reasoning, learning, problem-solving). 2. Significant limitations in adaptive behaviour, including:  Social skills (e.g., communication, following rules)  Practical skills (e.g., self-care)  Conceptual skills (e.g., language, literacy, number concepts). 3. Onset before age 18.

Answer 29

 Ranges from mild, moderate, severe, to profound.  Mild to moderate: Delays often become noticeable in early schooling; may reach Grade 6 or 7 with support; can live semi-independently.  Severe: Limited speech and communication; need supervision.  Profound: Significant physical and intellectual delays; require lifelong care.

Answer 30

 Genetic: e.g., inherited conditions, Down syndrome.  Pregnancy-related: Drug/alcohol use, infections (e.g., rubella), malnutrition.  Birth complications: Oxygen deprivation or injury during birth.  Childhood infections: e.g., encephalitis, meningitis.  Unknown causes: About 50% of cases have no identified cause; most known causes are biological.

Answer 31

 Permanent condition requiring individualised developmental programmes.  Focus on teaching language, social skills, hygiene, and self-care.  Parental support, family stability, and formal services are essential for effective treatment.  Medication may help with behavioural issues (e.g., aggression, self-injury).

Answer 32

 Intellectual disability can sometimes be prevented or its severity reduced through: o Proper prenatal care and screening o Nutrition and health care o Stimulating environments  In South Africa, data is limited due to: o Cultural/contextual misunderstandings o Lack of access to services o Financial barriers, stigma, and self-stigmatisation.

Answer 33

 Learning disorders (or disabilities) refer to persistent difficulties in reading, writing, and/or mathematics.  These difficulties are not caused by intellectual disability, brain injury, or lack of motivation.  Affects 5% to 15% of school-age children globally.  In South Africa, around 10% to 30% of children are estimated to have learning difficulties (though exact stats are lacking).

Answer 34

1. Reading Disorder (Dyslexia) o Difficulty reading words or understanding text. o Common symptom: letter reversals (e.g., “now” as “won”, “left” as “felt”). 2. Writing Disorder (Dysgraphia) o Problems with spelling, punctuation, handwriting, and putting thoughts into words. o Often linked to poor fine motor skills. 3. Mathematics Disorder (Dyscalculia) o Severe difficulty in understanding or learning mathematical concepts. o Exists despite appropriate teaching. verlap Between Disorders  Many learning disorders co-exist and share symptoms. o Example: Dyslexia and dysgraphia often occur together. o Dyslexia can affect skills related to math (as reading is needed to understand word problems), but not all dyslexic children struggle with math.

Answer 35

 Often only detected at school age when academic demands increase.  Can lead to: o Rejection by teachers o Bullying by peers o Low self-esteem and confidence o Anxiety, depression, or aggressive/disruptive behaviour  School performance is lower than expected relative to the child’s age, intelligence, and schooling.

Answer 36

 Should not be diagnosed if the problem stems from: o Poor teaching o Lack of motivation  Learning disorders require the child to meet specific diagnostic criteria.L

Answer 37

 Primarily due to genetic or neurobiological factors affecting brain processes.  Other risk factors include: o Prenatal/neonatal exposure (e.g., alcohol, drugs) o Emotional abuse o Physical trauma o Environmental toxins (e.g., lead)

Answer 38

 Remedial programmes can significantly improve learning outcomes.  Psychotherapy helps address emotional issues like low self-image, depression, and anxiety.  Despite progress in South Africa, inequality remains a barrier, particularly between different provinces and schools.  Learning disabilities often remain undiagnosed and untreated, making them “faceless” problems in communities.

Answer 39

 Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.  Symptoms grouped into: o Inattentive type: Difficulty concentrating, forgetfulness, disorganization. o Hyperactive-impulsive type: Excessive movement, restlessness, acting without thinking, interrupting others. Associated Issues:  Often accompanied by learning, emotional (e.g., anxiety, depression), and interpersonal difficulties.  Particularly disruptive in school settings, becoming evident in middle childhood. Causes:  Largely genetic and neurobiological in origin.  Other factors: prenatal exposure to substances (e.g., alcohol, nicotine), brain trauma, iron deficiency. Treatment:  No cure, but effective management through medication and psychological therapies.  Parental involvement is crucial.  Some children outgrow symptoms; others manage them with support. Achievement Motivation and Learning Orientation  Desire to succeed, overcome obstacles, and master difficult challenges.  Involves interaction between beliefs (e.g., causes of success/failure), values, and goals. Learning Orientation:  Focused on growth and knowledge acquisition.  Characterized by curiosity, persistence, and a desire to learn from experiences. Attributions Affecting Motivation:  Children explain success/failure via: o Internal factors: ability, effort, strategies. o External factors: luck, task difficulty, rewards.  Stable vs. unstable, and controllable vs. uncontrollable attributions impact motivation. Characteristics of Successful Children:  Mastery orientation: attribute success to effort and strategy, not luck.  Persistence: learn from failure and keep trying.  Adaptability: embrace change for growth.  Assertiveness: can say no in uncomfortable situations.  Accountability: take responsibility for mistakes.  Supportiveness: celebrate others’ successes. Characteristics of Unsuccessful Children:  Helpless orientation: attribute success to luck and failure to lack of ability.  Entity view of ability: believe ability is fixed, avoid challenges.  Focus on performance over learning, avoid difficult tasks, and miss growth opportunities. Influences:  Reactions to success/failure develop early.  Feedback from parents and teachers shapes orientation: o Praise for effort → encourages growth mindset. o Praise for ability → may lead to fixed mindset. table pg96

Answer 40

Children develop within interconnected sociocultural systems—such as families, neighbourhoods, communities, and schools. In South Africa, children's diverse backgrounds lead to different learning experiences and opportunities, shaped by factors like parental influence, socio-economic status, community support, and school quality. Parents contributions  Learning Environment: Achieving children often come from homes where parents create structured learning environments, including study spaces, routines, and monitoring activities.  Parental Involvement: Active parental engagement—such as interest in schoolwork and involvement in school activities—is a strong predictor of academic success and improves parent-teacher relationships and school climate.  Motivation Styles: o Extrinsic motivation uses rewards/punishments and is less effective. o Intrinsic motivation, like pride in hard work, fosters better academic performance.  Parenting Styles and Motivation: o Authoritative (warm and firm): linked to high curiosity and achievement. o Authoritarian (strict and unresponsive): promotes extrinsic motivation. o Permissive (few demands): often results in lower achievement. o Rejecting-neglecting (detached): associated with poor motivation and cognitive issues. o Overindulgent: limits responsibility and skill development, weakening motivation.  Other Influences: Regardless of parenting style, children's motivation is often stronger when they enjoy learning and have parents and peers who value education and set high expectations. Socio-economic status  Strong Correlation: Research shows a strong link between SES and academic performance globally.  SES Influences: SES affects family environment, neighbourhood choice, and access to quality education.  Disadvantages of Low SES: o Limited ability to create a learning-supportive home. o Poor neighbourhoods often offer low-quality schools and negative attitudes toward education. o Impacts brain development through poor prenatal care and nutrition. o Results in inadequate schooling: overcrowded classrooms, poor teaching, and lack of resources. o Additional home responsibilities (e.g., caregiving, earning income) and hunger hinder focus and learning.  Widespread Poverty: In South Africa, nearly 60% live in serious poverty, intensifying these challenges.  Positive Outcomes Still Possible: Despite disadvantages, many children from poor backgrounds succeed—often due to social capital (supportive families and communities) and personal resilience. Community involvement  Value of Community Participation: Widely recognized in South Africa and globally as essential for improving education quality.  Positive Outcomes: Collaboration between schools and communities leads to better learner performance, higher attendance, longer school retention, and increased enrolment in advanced programmes.  Definition of Community Involvement: Volunteering time and skills to benefit education, not for financial gain.  Forms of Community Support: o Partnerships with schools and education officials. o Community-led initiatives (e.g., establishing libraries, homework centres, uniform drives). o University student involvement in community education.  Reading Clubs: Use songs, games, storytelling, reading, writing, drama, and poetry in both mother tongue and English to improve literacy, affirm identity, and foster a sense of belonging. School contributions Classroom Atmosphere  The emotional and social climate of a classroom affects learning outcomes.  Influenced by: o Learner factors: self-regulation, attention, attitudes, engagement. o Teacher factors: warmth, supportiveness, classroom management, teaching skills. o Physical space: layout and resources.  Positive classroom climates lead to greater motivation and academic success. 98 School Climate and Educational Policy  School-wide values and goals shape learners' and teachers' attitudes and behaviours.  A focus on performance goals (competition, rewards) can harm learning.  Emphasizing learning goals (effort, mastery) enhances motivation.  South African education still faces major challenges: o High dropout rates and poor pass rates. o Mismatch between school content and cultural/home experiences. o Language barriers impact learning — many are not taught in their home language. o Teachers often lack training in culturally inclusive methods. o Deficit views of learners' home environments limit engagement. o Incorporating local knowledge (e.g., folk tales, cultural games) can improve learning.

Answer 41

 Many South African schools, especially rural ones, lack basic infrastructure: o Unsafe buildings, poor sanitation, no water/electricity. o No libraries, labs, or internet access. o Overcrowded classrooms, lack of furniture and textbooks.  These conditions compromise learners’ health, safety, and academic success.  Infrastructure inequality deepens the divide in educational outcomes.

Answer 42

 School violence includes physical and verbal aggression among and between learners and educators.  Types of violence: o Physical: fighting, bullying, corporal punishment. o Non-physical: verbal abuse, cyberbullying.  Effects: o Victims may suffer from depression, anxiety, absenteeism, and academic decline. o Disrupts learning and damages school climate. o Violence at school is often linked to violence at home and in communities, creating a harmful cycle.

Answer 43

Homeschooling, a legal alternative to traditional schooling in South Africa since 1996, allows parents to educate their children at home, following a structured programme. The number of homeschooled children has increased significantly, from 11,000 in 2009 to 32,000 in 2017. Parents opt for homeschooling for reasons such as dissatisfaction with the public education system, safety concerns, special needs, or a desire for a more personalized approach. Parents have the flexibility to choose or combine curricula suited to their children’s learning styles, supported by various resources like online platforms, WhatsApp groups, and homeschooling events. Despite the benefits, homeschooling presents challenges, including time management, the pressure to meet academic standards, and balancing parenting with teaching responsibilities. Advantages of homeschooling include individualized learning, stronger family bonds, flexibility, emotional benefits like increased confidence, and socialization through external activities. It is grounded in the philosophy that education is about more than academic success; it aims to prepare children for life, fostering good character traits. However, homeschooling isn't for every family. Some parents prefer to focus on parenting, and some children thrive better in a school environment, benefiting from peer interactions, exposure to diverse teaching styles, and competition. Furthermore, children with behavioural issues may need professional support that homeschooling cannot provide.

Answer 44

1. 2. ICT Definition: Information Communication Technology (ICT) includes digital tools like cell phones, computers, and the Internet, as well as traditional media such as chalkboards, textbooks, and TV. These technologies provide children with valuable learning tools and enhance cognitive development. Benefits of ICT in Learning: o E-learning: ICT enables online learning, offering access to curriculum materials both in and outside the classroom (e.g., at home or in hospitals). o Inclusion: ICT supports diverse learning needs, helping students with special needs or different learning speeds. It also reduces the gap between students exposed to technology at home and those who are not. o Higher-order Thinking: ICT fosters skills like planning, monitoring, reflecting, and analysing. o Subject Learning: ICT enhances literacy, numeracy, homework, and school projects. o Creativity: ICT tools provide opportunities for creative activities like music, art, dance, and photography. o Motivation: Technology fascinates children, making learning fun and engaging, which helps improve knowledge retention. o Collaboration and Interaction: ICT promotes active student participation, interactive learning, and greater collaboration with teachers. o New Learning Experiences: It encourages deep processing of ideas and interaction with the subject matter. o Skill Development: ICT fosters technical knowledge for 21st-century skills and academic achievement, enhancing cognitive skills like spatial awareness through activities like internet browsing. 3. Challenges in South Africa: o Despite government strategies to implement ICT in schools, many South African schools face resource shortages, such as lack of computers, teacher training, and network connectivity. o Other challenges include theft, vandalism, and insufficient funds for maintenance, hindering students' ability to benefit from ICT-based learning.

Answer 45

1) Biological Perspectives: Focus on genetic and physiological factors influencing personality. 1) Learning Perspectives: Emphasize how environment and experiences shape personality. 3) Ethological Perspective: Looks at how evolutionary biology influences behaviour and personality. 4) Integrated Approaches: Combine various theories to understand personality development holistically

Answer 46

 Temperament: Children's temperament (e.g., easy vs. difficult) influences their personality development and the way they are treated by others.  Temperament affects how children interact with their environment, and how experiences shape their self-evaluations.  The goodness-of-fit phenomenon suggests that how parents and others respond to a child's temperament can affect their development.

Answer 47

 Freud: The latency stage (6-12 years) focuses on the repression of sexual desires and the development of friendships and social skills.  Erikson: Industry vs. inferiority stage. Successful resolution leads to a sense of competence; failure can result in feelings of inadequacy, often influenced by negative experiences with parents, teachers, or peers.

Answer 48

 Competence: Defined as the ability to control one's life, solve problems, and adapt effectively, rather than just adjusting to circumstances.  Four key areas of competence: o Adjusting to school: Children learn to navigate social structures, develop self- esteem, and meet academic and social expectations. o Establishing peer relationships: Positive peer relationships are crucial for future success. o Learning to play by the rules: Rule-following behaviour helps develop social competence. o Achieving academically: Academic success influences a child's perception of their competence.

Answer 49

 Learning Process: Temperament influences how children respond to classical and operant conditioning.  Environmental Elicitation: Children’s temperament shapes the way adults and peers respond to them.  Social and Temporal Comparisons: Children evaluate themselves relative to others and over time, often influenced by their temperament.  Environmental Selection: Temperament affects the types of activities children choose to engage in.  Environmental Manipulation: Children influence their environment based on their temperament.  Environment Construal: Children interpret their experiences based on their temperament, affecting their overall development.

Answer 50

 A positive self-concept, pride in accomplishments, prosocial behaviour, moral responsibility, emotional regulation, and supportive relationships are key to healthy social and emotional development during middle childhood. pg 104

Answer 51

 Self-concept refers to the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that define an individual.  During middle childhood, children describe themselves not only in external terms but also based on psychological traits, internal characteristics, and social aspects (e.g., "I am friendly," "I am good at school").  Social comparisons become important, as children begin to compare their characteristics with peers, contributing to a more differentiated and realistic self- concept.  Cognitive development plays a key role in this process, allowing children to reflect on their strengths, weaknesses, and differences from others.

Answer 52

 Cognitive abilities, social feedback, and perspective-taking skills are essential for the development of a more complex self-concept.  The ability to distinguish between the "real self" (how a child sees themselves) and the "ideal self" (how they would like to be) helps children evaluate their self-worth.  Social groups and family influence children's self-definition, with parents remaining a strong source of self-concept development.

Answer 53

 Self-esteem is how individuals judge their own worth and can be influenced by their performance in different activities.  During middle childhood, children differentiate their self-esteem into various domains, such as academic, athletic, and social competence.  A discrepancy between the ideal and real self may lower self-esteem, especially if the child feels they are falling short of external expectations.

Answer 54

 Self-efficacy relates to a child's belief in their abilities to achieve specific goals.  It is influenced by daily experiences, feedback from others, and personal reflection.  Children with high self-efficacy tend to act confidently and achieve their goals, while low self-efficacy can hinder performance.

Answer 55

 Genetics can play a role in self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy, though environmental factors are also significant.  Positive feedback, warm parenting, and experiences of success can enhance these self-traits, while negative feedback, mental health issues, or unrealistic expectations can undermine them.

Answer 56

 Parents and caregivers can help enhance a child's self-concept by focusing on their areas of competence, helping them cope with challenges, and providing emotional support.  Encouraging effort, teaching that mistakes are part of learning, and setting achievable goals are key to fostering positive self-esteem and self-efficacy.  Avoiding unrealistic praise or comparisons with peers is crucial in developing a healthy sense of self.

Answer 57

 Children become better at recognizing and explaining emotions, both in themselves and others. They start to grasp complex emotions, such as pride and shame, and understand that people may not always express what they truly feel.  They also develop an understanding of mixed emotions, like feeling both excited and scared about a sleepover.

Answer 58

 Emotional self-regulation refers to children's ability to manage their emotions according to social norms. They learn to control or suppress negative feelings and react appropriately to situations (e.g., smiling when receiving a gift, even if they don’t like it).  This skill contributes to children's emotional self-efficacy, or the belief that they can control their emotions, which leads to positive outcomes like happiness, empathy, and strong peer relationships.

Answer 59

 Children develop emotions tied to self-awareness, like pride, jealousy, embarrassment, and empathy. These emotions are influenced by parental practices and culture and help guide moral behaviour, promoting prosocial actions.

Answer 60

 The section introduces the concept of emotional intelligence (EQ), which involves skills such as emotional self-awareness, emotional management, social awareness, and relationship management.  Research suggests that children with higher emotional intelligence tend to perform better academically, manage stress better, get along well with others, and have stronger coping skills.

Answer 61

 While EQ is valuable, critics argue that it is not a new concept and is often just rebranded psychology. There are also concerns about the difficulty in measuring EQ and the mixed results regarding its ability to predict academic and workplace success.

Answer 62

 Emotional development is shaped by both personal factors (like temperament and cognitive abilities) and contextual factors (like attachment, parenting styles, and culture).  Parents play a crucial role by modelling emotional expression and regulation. They can help children identify their emotions and discuss strategies for managing them.

Answer 63

 Changes in Middle Childhood: Children in middle childhood spend more time away from home and less time with their parents. However, home remains a place of security, and family is central to the child’s life.  Demands on Parents: Children require more logistical support, such as transportation, help with planning their day, and assistance with homework and school projects. Parents also face new financial pressures related to schooling and extracurricular activities.  Parental Roles: Parents are responsible for teaching values, guiding behaviour towards authority, and helping children solve interpersonal conflicts. They serve as a buffer between children and the community.  Changes in Children’s Independence: Between ages 6 and 12, children become less dependent on their parents for daily tasks and seek more opportunities to make decisions. They begin questioning parental decisions and comparing their family life with others.

Answer 64

 Various personality theories (Freud, Erikson, Big Five) relate to personality development in this stage, with a focus on developing competence.  Temperament influences personality development, with early temperament impacting how children adapt to challenges and form relationships.

Answer 65

 Competence refers to a child’s belief in their ability to succeed in various areas.  It's linked to theories of Freud (ego development), Erikson (Industry vs. Inferiority), and the Big Five (traits like conscientiousness).  Children develop a sense of competence by achieving success in school, sports, and social activities, with encouragement from parents and teachers playing a key role.

Answer 66

a) Self-concept: Children develop a more nuanced understanding of themselves. b) Self-esteem: Children’s judgment of their worth is influenced by their achievements. c) Self-efficacy: Children’s belief in their ability to accomplish tasks strengthens with success. Factors Influencing Self-Traits:  Higher self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy develop in children who receive positive reinforcement and experience success.  Parents can help enhance these traits by offering encouragement, setting achievable goals, and providing constructive feedback.

Answer 67

 Emotional Understanding: Children begin to recognize and understand complex emotions.  Emotional Self-Regulation: Children learn to control their emotional responses.  Self-Conscious Emotions: Emotions like pride, guilt, and shame become more prominent. Emotional Intelligence (EQ):  Emotional intelligence involves self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management.  Children with high EQ display resilience and social competence.  Criticisms of EQ include its difficulty in measurement and potential for oversimplification.  Influences on Emotional Development: Factors such as parenting style, attachment quality, and cultural influences shape emotional development in children.  Parental Guidance on Emotions: Parents should model appropriate emotional expression. Hiding negative emotions can lead to misunderstandings. It’s important for children to learn how to express and regulate their emotions in healthy ways.

Answer 68

 Children's Growing Independence: As children become more independent during middle childhood, parents face new challenges in maintaining appropriate levels of influence and guidance.  Authoritative Parenting Style: Parents who have established an authoritative parenting style during earlier years may find parenting during middle childhood easier. This is due to children’s increased cognitive abilities, which make reasoning-based approaches more effective.  Co-Regulation: As children demonstrate the ability to manage daily activities, parents gradually shift control to them. However, this shift does not mean parents relinquish all control. Instead, they engage in co-regulation, where parents still supervise but allow children to make moment-to-moment decisions.  Co-Regulation Process: Co-regulation involves a cooperative relationship between parent and child, based on mutual respect. Parents guide, monitor, and communicate expectations, while children inform parents about their activities and problems, allowing for intervention when necessary.  Preparing for Adolescence: Co-regulation supports children and prepares them for adolescence, providing a transitional form of supervision as they move toward a time when they will be expected to make more independent decisions.

Answer 69

 Parenting Models: o Parent Effects Model: Assumes that influences run from parent to child. Parents' behaviours, moods, and circumstances (such as depression, financial stress, or aggression) can negatively affect children's development, while positive parenting promotes positive outcomes. o Child Effects Model: Focuses on how children influence their parents. For example, a child's age and temperament can affect how parents interact with them. Children’s behaviours, such as being easy-going or difficult, can shape the parents' approach, potentially leading to a positive or negative cycle (e.g., coercive behaviours). o Bi-Directional Model: Emphasizes reciprocal influence, where both parents and children affect each other. Negative interactions between parents and children can escalate, reinforcing undesirable behaviours in both. However, positive interactions, such as cooperation and harmonious communication, can strengthen positive behaviours in both.  Effects of Parenting: Parental influence is significant, with authoritative parenting linked to children's social responsibility and parental negativity associated with issues like anxiety or antisocial behaviour. However, the family is a dynamic system, and both genetic factors and environmental influences contribute to children's development.  Other Influences: As children grow, they are increasingly influenced by peers, schools, teachers, and the media. Random events like illness or success can also alter the trajectory of a child's life, often independent of parental influence.

Answer 70

a) Parents as Socialization Agents: o Direct Instructors: Parents teach values, attitudes, and rules to their children, guiding them with advice and helping them develop social skills through scaffolding (tailored support based on the child’s developmental stage). o Indirect Socialisers: Parents indirectly influence children through their behaviour, parenting style, and attachment. Secure attachments and an authoritative parenting style foster social competence. Parents also model behaviours such as kindness, helpfulness, or intolerance. o Social Managers: Parents manage children's experiences by selecting environments (home, neighbourhood, school) and orchestrating activities to align with their developmental goals. As children gain autonomy, parents increasingly manage their children's social lives from a distance, setting rules and monitoring behaviour. b) Active Role of Children: o Children actively influence the socialization process through their personal characteristics and their willingness to engage in socialization. They also seek to carve out their own places in life, which affects the success of parenting efforts. c) Influence of the Larger Social Environment: o Parents' beliefs, cultural norms, and personal circumstances (e.g., poverty or divorce) shape their parenting behaviours and socialization strategies. These external factors impact the way parents interact with and guide their children.

Answer 71

The passage discusses the importance of discipline in parenting and the differences between discipline and punishment. Discipline vs. Punishment:  Discipline is about teaching children self-control, moral values, and appropriate behaviour, aiming for long-term self-discipline. It helps in shaping children's character and guiding them toward good behaviour.  Punishment, on the other hand, is a short-term solution that focuses on causing discomfort (pain, shame, humiliation) to stop undesirable behaviour. It doesn't promote self-discipline and may interfere with the goal of long-term behaviour change. 113 Positive Discipline:  The focus is on positive discipline, which emphasizes encouraging children to learn and grow in a supportive and respectful manner. The five major characteristics of positive discipline are: o It is kind, respectful, encouraging, yet firm and consistent. o It helps children feel a sense of belonging and significance. o It is effective in the long-term. o It teaches valuable social and life skills, such as respect, accountability, and problem-solving. o It encourages children to discover their own capabilities and use their personal power constructively. Positive discipline, therefore, fosters both immediate and lasting positive behaviours in children, teaching them not just to follow rules, but to understand and internalize the values behind them. Parental behaviour:  Parents must show self-control and leadership. 114  Emotional outbursts (shouting, hitting) damage authority and escalate misbehaviour.  Children imitate adult behaviour — positive discipline starts with how adults behave. Key Parenting Strategies  Setting Rules and Limits: Clear, age-appropriate, consistent rules create structure and safety.  Offering Choices: Empowers children, teaches consequences and responsibility.  Consistency and Follow-Through: Builds trust and voluntary compliance.  Positive Feedback: Reinforces good behaviour, builds self-esteem.  Punishment That Teaches: Used sparingly and properly (early, calm, mild, logical). Should allow opportunities to make amends. Effective Use of Punishment  Should be part of a sequence: Prevent > Set rules > Praise > Explain > Punish if needed.  Mild, timely, and emotionally neutral punishment is best.  Harsh punishment (e.g., shouting, corporal punishment) is ineffective long-term and models aggression.  Children should be given the chance to correct their actions (e.g., apologise, clean up). Final Thoughts  Discipline is not about controlling children, but teaching them to control themselves.  No one-size-fits-all method works instantly or universally.  The focus should remain on respect, guidance, and love, even when correcting behaviour. Parental behaviour  Parents must show self-control and leadership. 114  Emotional outbursts (shouting, hitting) damage authority and escalate misbehaviour.  Children imitate adult behaviour — positive discipline starts with how adults behave. Key Parenting Strategies  Setting Rules and Limits: Clear, age-appropriate, consistent rules create structure and safety.  Offering Choices: Empowers children, teaches consequences and responsibility.  Consistency and Follow-Through: Builds trust and voluntary compliance.  Positive Feedback: Reinforces good behaviour, builds self-esteem.  Punishment That Teaches: Used sparingly and properly (early, calm, mild, logical). Should allow opportunities to make amends. Effective Use of Punishment  Should be part of a sequence: Prevent > Set rules > Praise > Explain > Punish if needed.  Mild, timely, and emotionally neutral punishment is best.  Harsh punishment (e.g., shouting, corporal punishment) is ineffective long-term and models aggression.  Children should be given the chance to correct their actions (e.g., apologise, clean up). Final Thoughts  Discipline is not about controlling children, but teaching them to control themselves.  No one-size-fits-all method works instantly or universally.  The focus should remain on respect, guidance, and love, even when correcting behaviour.

Answer 72

 The focus is on positive discipline, which emphasizes encouraging children to learn and grow in a supportive and respectful manner. The five major characteristics of positive discipline are: o It is kind, respectful, encouraging, yet firm and consistent. o It helps children feel a sense of belonging and significance. o It is effective in the long-term. o It teaches valuable social and life skills, such as respect, accountability, and problem-solving. o It encourages children to discover their own capabilities and use their personal power constructively. Positive discipline, therefore, fosters both immediate and lasting positive behaviours in children, teaching them not just to follow rules, but to understand and internalize the values behind them. table 114

Answer 73

 Parents must show self-control and leadership.  Emotional outbursts (shouting, hitting) damage authority and escalate misbehaviour.  Children imitate adult behaviour — positive discipline starts with how adults behave. Key Parenting Strategies  Setting Rules and Limits: Clear, age-appropriate, consistent rules create structure and safety.  Offering Choices: Empowers children, teaches consequences and responsibility.  Consistency and Follow-Through: Builds trust and voluntary compliance.  Positive Feedback: Reinforces good behaviour, builds self-esteem.  Punishment That Teaches: Used sparingly and properly (early, calm, mild, logical). Should allow opportunities to make amends. Effective Use of Punishment  Should be part of a sequence: Prevent > Set rules > Praise > Explain > Punish if needed.  Mild, timely, and emotionally neutral punishment is best.  Harsh punishment (e.g., shouting, corporal punishment) is ineffective long-term and models aggression.  Children should be given the chance to correct their actions (e.g., apologise, clean up). Final Thoughts  Discipline is not about controlling children, but teaching them to control themselves.  No one-size-fits-all method works instantly or universally.  The focus should remain on respect, guidance, and love, even when correcting behaviour.

Answer 74

Unique Nature of Sibling Relationships 1. 2. 3. Emotionally uninhibited, which increases mutual influence. Siblings spend more time together than with parents by middle childhood. There is great variability in how well siblings get along. Types of Sibling Interactions  Sibling relationships become more egalitarian and companionable in middle childhood.  Siblings can offer emotional support, especially during crises like divorce or death.  But crises may also strain relationships (e.g., taking sides).  Relationships can be challenging due to developmental differences between siblings.  Sibling rivalry and bullying often increase with age and are linked to low empathy and mental health issues.

Answer 75

Types of Sibling Interactions  Sibling relationships become more egalitarian and companionable in middle childhood.  Siblings can offer emotional support, especially during crises like divorce or death.  But crises may also strain relationships (e.g., taking sides).  Relationships can be challenging due to developmental differences between siblings.  Sibling rivalry and bullying often increase with age and are linked to low empathy and mental health issues. Types of Siblings  Traditional siblings: same biological parents.  Half-siblings: share one biological parent.  Stepsiblings: no biological relation, but their parents are married.  Adopted siblings: some or all siblings are adopted.  Only child: grows up without siblings. Factors Influencing Sibling Relationships  Personality, age, gender, family size, birth order.  Relationships range from warm and caring to conflictual and rivalrous.  Parents are key in fostering positive sibling engagement. Only Children: Are They at a Disadvantage?  Contrary to myths, only children are not spoilt or narcissistic.  They often: o Have higher self-esteem o Show more achievement motivation o Perform better academically o Are more creative  Socially, they are just as competent as peers with siblings.  Cultural context may affect perceptions of only children.

Answer 76

During middle childhood, children become more likely to interact with peers of the same gender and age, mainly due to school exposure. Unlike child–adult interactions, which focus on care and protection, peer interactions are based on friendship, affection, and companionship. Peers become key sources of intimacy and social learning. While parents and peers influence children in similar ways, peers often shape experiences in areas beyond parental reach. Parental guidance helps children build peer relationships, but children develop and practice social skills more effectively with other children than with adults.

Answer 77

In middle childhood, peer groups become more stable, structured, and cohesive compared to earlier stages. These groups have leaders, followers, shared norms, and clear roles, often forming due to increasing conformity among school-aged children. Peer groups play a crucial role in social development, sometimes more influential than parents. Key functions of peer groups include:  Comradeship and affection, especially for children lacking warmth at home.  Opportunities to try new behaviours and develop social skills like cooperation and negotiation.  Knowledge transfer, including information about the world, often shared informally.  Teaching rules and discipline, where social consequences enforce compliance.  Reinforcement of gender roles, with pressure to conform to group norms for masculinity or femininity.  Fostering independence by loosening emotional ties to parents.  Equal competition, allowing children to build confidence and assertiveness outside adult-dominated relationships. However, excessive conformity and attachment to peer groups can be harmful. Peer pressure may lead to risky behaviour, hinder personality development, or prevent the growth of self- reliance. Children who depend too much on group approval may struggle with independence and decision-making later in life.

Answer 78

Friendships are essential for healthy development in middle childhood. A lack of friendships can lead to loneliness, anxiety, and social isolation. Unlike peer groups, which offer broad social experiences, friendships provide deep, personal connections that foster trust, sensitivity, and emotional growth. Friendships in middle childhood serve several unique functions:  Companionship: Long-term playmates and activity partners.  Stimulation: Sharing fun, excitement, and new information.  Physical support: Providing help and resources when needed.  Ego support: Encouraging self-worth and positive self-image.  Social comparison: Helping children gauge their standing and progress relative to others.  Affection and intimacy: Building warm, trusting relationships involving self- disclosure and secret-keeping. By age 6, children begin to understand the importance of keeping secrets in friendships, and by middle childhood, secret-keeping increases as their social and cognitive skills mature, influenced by trust and how they perceive others' abilities to manage information responsibly. During middle childhood, friendships become deeper, more complex, and psychologically grounded. They are based not just on shared activities, but also on mutual affection, trust, and the ability to respond to each other’s emotional needs. As a result, friendships are more selective, with children choosing fewer but closer friends, often similar in age, gender, race, personality, and beliefs—a phenomenon known as selective association. While same-race friendships are generally more stable, cross-racial friendships—though less common and often more difficult to maintain—can be equally rewarding and of high quality, especially when children share similar peer status, backgrounds, and behaviours. Research shows that children see adult influences and environments as crucial to forming and maintaining these relationships. In diverse societies, supporting interracial friendships is vital for promoting social-emotional development and cultural competence—the ability to understand, connect with, and feel comfortable around people from different backgrounds.

Answer 79

In middle childhood, play remains a vital part of children's development, just as it was in early childhood. It continues to be a powerful tool through which children explore the world and themselves. Through play, they develop physical, cognitive, creative, social, and emotional skills that are essential for their future growth and functioning. This stage of play supports well-rounded development and helps prepare children for later life. During middle childhood, children’s play becomes more structured, logical, and skill-based due to cognitive developments associated with the concrete operational stage. While fantasy play still exists, games with rules and strategies (like Monopoly or Morabaraba) become preferred. Children also begin to collect and organize items, reflecting their growing sense of order. Cultural and traditional games, such as Banyana ke di bom bom and iskipa sika Jomo, showcase children's creativity and musical fluency. Physical skill development is central, with children engaging in activities like soccer, swimming, skateboarding, and dancing. Mastery of these skills boosts self-esteem and helps children gain peer recognition. Children may also become involved in organized sports and hobbies like building with LEGO. Access to electronic media increases, influencing both cognitive and social development. However, culture and socio-economic conditions play a major role in shaping how and with what children play. In lower-income or rural settings, children often create innovative, meaningful play experiences using everyday items. Lastly, while toys and structured play materials are useful, the main value of play lies in the joy, creativity, and well-being it fosters in both children and parents. Play should not be solely focused on education or development but appreciated as essential for holistic happiness and growth.

Answer 80

Peer Acceptance vs. Friendship  Peer acceptance: Reflects how much a child is liked by peers — a one-sided group perception.  Friendship: A mutual, personal relationship.  Peer acceptance is crucial to social and emotional development and strongly predicts later psychological adjustment. Categories of Peer Status  Popular: o Popular-prosocial: Kind, considerate, emotionally regulated. o Popular-antisocial: Seen as "cool" but aggressive or rebellious.  Rejected: o Rejected-aggressive: Hostile, impulsive, misinterpret others' intentions. o Rejected-withdrawn: Anxious, socially awkward, easily bullied.  Controversial: Mix of positive and negative behaviours; have both friends and enemies.  Neglected: Quiet and shy but not unhappy; can form close friendships.  Average: Don’t stand out; generally socially and academically competent. Impact of Peer Acceptance  Children who are not accepted: o Tend to struggle emotionally, socially, and academically. o Are at risk for mental health issues, dropping out, and antisocial behaviour.  Those who are accepted: o Often experience better life outcomes — healthier relationships, higher earnings, and better health.

Answer 81

 Played with two stones in a rhythmic fashion.  Children tell monologue stories while hitting stones.  Expresses emotions like joy, anger, sadness, fear.  Builds empathy, listening, emotional regulation, and problem-solving skills.  Accessible and inclusive, even for shy or withdrawn children.  Valuable in play therapy due to its emotional and expressive depth.

Answer 82

 Children in rural or township areas improvise toys from nature.  Masekitlana exemplifies how play in African contexts can support emotional expression and social learning without commercial toys.

Answer 83

 Bullying is intentional, ongoing, and involves a misuse of power that causes harm.  Victims often feel unable to stop the bullying.  Four main types: 1. Physical – e.g., hitting, stealing, threats. 2. Verbal/Written – e.g., name-calling, insults about race/sexuality. 3. Social – e.g., exclusion, rumors, humiliation. 4. Cyberbullying – e.g., abusive messages, catfishing, hacking.

Answer 84

 Victims: o Emotional: depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts. o Social: isolation, withdrawal. o Academic: poor concentration, absenteeism. o Physical: headaches, stomach aches, bed-wetting. o Possible structural brain changes due to chronic victimisation.  Perpetrators: o Tend to have poor school performance, engage in crime/substance abuse, and struggle with adult relationships.  Bystanders: o Experience anxiety, guilt, depression, and may feel powerless.

Answer 85

1. Individual: impulsivity, callousness, peer pressure, anxiety. 2. Family: poor supervision, harsh discipline, abuse, low emotional support. 3. Peers: peer pressure (external and internal). 4. School: school climate, teacher support, conflict resolution. 5. Society/Culture: normalized violence, discrimination, societal cruelty mirrored in children. Prevalence  Globally: ~20% bully others; ~25% are bullied.  South Africa: One of the highest rates globally. o Grade 5: 44% bullied weekly; 34% monthly. o Higher rates in public and no-fee schools. o Boys more often involved in physical bullying; girls in social/verbal forms. Key Takeaways  Bullying must be taken seriously—it affects victims, bullies, and witnesses.  Intervention is necessary for both victims and perpetrators.  Society as a whole must change to reduce bullying.

Answer 86

In Chapter 4, and earlier in the text, the significant influence of media on children's development, particularly in cognitive development and socialization, is discussed, with a focus on aggression and violence. As children enter middle childhood, they not only engage more with media and technology but also become more skilled and competent in using them. Media content and the influence of external factors like peers and school evolve during this stage, shaping what children access and how they use it. Digital media, which includes television, computers, tablets, cell phones, and web-based platforms, has become a core part of children's lives. The time children spend on electronic media often surpasses time spent on other activities, influencing their beliefs and behaviours. The social learning theory suggests children learn by imitating behaviours they see in media, especially when those behaviours are rewarded or appear realistic. Cognitive development theory emphasizes that children's ability to understand media content depends on their developmental stage. Media also provide children with 'scripts' for navigating unfamiliar situations, like romantic relationships. Superpeer theory posits that media act as influential figures, normalizing risky behaviours. Consequently, digital media has become a primary socializing force for children.

Answer 87

Television has the most significant socialization effect on children, surpassing other forms of media due to its widespread accessibility and the time children spend watching it. A study found over 50% of primary school children in the Western Cape watch television for at least 3 hours daily.

Answer 88

Family Values Television portrayals of families can influence children's perceptions of family life. Unrealistic portrayals (e.g., families always being loving or constantly in conflict) can distort children's understanding of real-world family dynamics, potentially undermining authority structures and parental guidance. 128 Family Interaction Television can enhance family interaction by providing shared activities like watching programs together and stimulating discussions. However, it can also lead to conflicts over content choices, time allocation, and media usage, with solutions like setting viewing rules helping manage these conflicts. Violence and Aggression Exposure to violent content on television is linked to real-life aggression, especially when violence is glamorized and presented without consequences. This can affect children, particularly those from conflict-ridden homes, leading to increased viewing of violent content. Sexual Attitudes and Body Image Children, especially as they mature, are exposed to age-inappropriate content, including sexual themes. Heavy exposure to sexual content has been linked to earlier sexual activity. The media's sexualization of girls can have harmful effects, including body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, and mental health issues. However, some argue it could also promote empowerment and sexual health in certain contexts. Drugs and Substance Abuse Media frequently portrays drug and alcohol use in a positive light, which can influence children to model these behaviours. Though alcohol advertising is not banned, and children are exposed to substance abuse in movies and advertisements, the harmful effects are often downplayed, contributing to a normalization of risky behaviours.

Answer 89

Integration of Technology in Children's Lives: Information and communication technologies, such as computers, tablets, and the Internet, have become essential and intrinsic to children's lives, rather than just tools for accessing information. This shift is more significant in middle childhood, though research in this area is limited.

Answer 90

Changes in Computer and Internet Usage by Age:  Younger children spend more time playing games on computers, while older children (11-14 years old) shift to social networking sites.  This trend mirrors non-digital environments, where younger children engage in more play and older children focus more on communication with peers. Concerns About Social Skills Development:  The solitary nature of many computer activities, such as gaming in isolation, has raised concerns about the potential hindrance to developing interpersonal skills.  Some argue that the Internet may foster 'electronic friendships' rather than peer relationships, while others disagree, suggesting that online communication and gaming can still facilitate social interactions and bonding, especially within families. Impact on Family Time and Conflict:  Some studies show that increased Internet use correlates with reduced family time and higher family conflict. Children often prefer to communicate with peers or siblings during gaming, which can isolate them from adult influence. Blurring of Reality and Virtual Reality:  A significant concern with digital media, especially games and online content, is that children may struggle to distinguish between real life and simulations. This is particularly problematic for younger children, who may find it challenging to differentiate between reality and fantasy.  This blurring of lines could lead to desensitization to behaviours like aggression, violence, and explicit sexual content, affecting children’s understanding of these behaviours in real life.

Answer 91

Early Use of Cell Phones:  Children are using cell phones at younger ages. They primarily use them to communicate with family, for convenience, and in emergencies.  In divorced families, cell phones are often given to maintain contact with the non- residential parent. Peer pressure also plays a role in children wanting a cell phone. Advancements in Technology:  Modern cell phones now mirror many functions of computers, including Internet access. As children mature, they increasingly use cell phones for social networking, with social media websites being one of the most common activities.  These platforms offer opportunities for social and emotional development, but also present risks due to limited self-regulation and peer pressure. Concerns Over Unsupervised Internet Access:  Unlike family computers, children’s activity on cell phones is harder for parents to monitor, leading to increased risk of accessing inappropriate content, such as pornography.  Many children, motivated by curiosity, encounter explicit material despite parental warnings.  Parental discomfort in discussing sensitive topics like sexuality, combined with limited digital media literacy, exacerbates these risks. Other Risks and Parental Challenges:  Parents may struggle with addressing the dangers of cell phone use due to awkwardness or unresolved sexual conflicts, and their lack of digital literacy prevents them from understanding the risks and how to mitigate them.  Additional concerns include Internet addiction, sleep deprivation, and the negative impact on academic performance due to distracted learning in the classroom. Impact on Schools and Academic Performance:  Cell phone use in schools leads to divided attention, lower academic performance, and classroom disruptions, such as text messaging, games, or calls.  Cell phones also facilitate cheating during exams and theft of phones, further complicating school environments.  The instantaneous communication encouraged by cell phones may reduce children's self-reliance, as they depend on their parents for problem-solving.  Cyberbullying, including harmful messaging and inappropriate photo distribution, has become a significant issue in schools, prompting many South African schools to ban cell phones in the classroom.

Answer 92

Parents should be aware that their own use of technology, such as cell phones and tablets, can irritate their children, just as children's use of these devices can frustrate parents. Many children try to get their parents to disengage from their devices and engage more with family life. Parents are often seen sneaking away from family gatherings to check emails, and children worry about distractions, such as when parents use technology while driving. Parents' use of technology during social situations like school events or family meals is also seen as disruptive, a phenomenon referred to as "technoference." A study showed that both parents and children lack insight into their own and each other's phone habits. They tend to justify their own behaviour while blaming the other, which is an example of the psychological defence mechanism of projection.

Answer 93

South Africa has a history of racial prejudice and discrimination that continues to affect children significantly. Prejudice refers to negative attitudes towards individuals based on their social group membership, while discrimination refers to negative actions towards these groups. Stereotyping is the generalization of characteristics about a group. Impact on Children Prejudice, discrimination, and stereotyping have severe effects on children's cognitive and social development, influencing self-esteem, peer relationships, and academic performance. Peer victimization can also result from these biases and have lifelong emotional consequences. Development of Biases Children's thinking about social groups develops through categorization processes, often influenced by parents, peers, teachers, and media. These beliefs can become entrenched and affect attitudes in adulthood.

Answer 94

hildren tend to categorize people based on noticeable traits such as race or gender, and these categories can shape their social behaviours and attitudes. The Developmental Intergroup Theory explains how children are influenced by factors like adult labelling, perceptual differences, and the size of social groups. Role of Parents in Combating Bias Parents play a crucial role in shaping children's attitudes. To reduce bias, parents should: 1) Challenge their own biases. 2) Discuss the effects of prejudice openly with children. 3) Expose children to positive images of other racial groups. 4) Teach children not to generalize or stereotype others. Changing Future Generations: Addressing prejudice and discrimination in children is vital to breaking the cycle of bias and creating a more equitable society. Parents must create environments where children do not internalize negative stereotypes, helping to prevent the perpetuation of discrimination in the future.

Answer 95

Morality refers to principles that help individuals distinguish between right and wrong, and moral development is the process by which children learn these principles and apply them to judge behaviour and guide their actions. This development is crucial for societal harmony and order. Every society has ethical codes that define acceptable and unacceptable practices, and understanding morality is one of the key developmental tasks in middle childhood. The way children conceptualize morality is an important indicator of their social development. Several psychologists have proposed different theories on moral development, focusing on aspects such as cognition, emotion, or behaviour, with some integrating these elements. Moral reasoning  Moral Reasoning: This is the cognitive aspect of morality, referring to how children judge the rightness or wrongness of behaviours. Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg are key figures in understanding moral development.

Answer 96

1) Pre-moral Stage (under 5 years): Children don’t understand rules and play without considering them. 2) Moral Realism Stage (5-10 years): Children believe rules are fixed, come from authority, and should always be obeyed. They judge actions by consequences, not intentions, and believe in immanent justice (i.e., bad things happen to those who break rules). 3) Moral Relativism Stage (10 years and up): Children begin to understand that rules are flexible, can be negotiated, and depend on mutual agreement. They consider intentions when judging actions. table 5.8 pg 136

Answer 97

o Children may develop moral understanding earlier than Piaget suggested. o Piaget did not account for cultural and socio-economic differences. o Moral development may continue beyond middle childhood, challenging Piaget’s idea of it being complete by that stage.

Answer 98

 Kohlberg expanded on Piaget's theory by studying children’s responses to moral dilemmas. He believed moral development progresses in stages, with each stage reflecting increasing complexity. 1) Pre-conventional Level (Middle Childhood): Children’s moral reasoning is driven by consequences, avoiding punishment (Stage 1) and satisfying personal needs (Stage 2). 2) Stage 1: Obedience is motivated by avoiding punishment. 3) Stage 2: Children recognize that others may have different views, and decisions are based on self-interest.  Kohlberg’s Stages: o Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level has two stages. o Criticism of Kohlberg’s Theory: Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for cultural bias and gender bias, as well as its limited scope (only a few moral dilemmas). While the first three stages are common across cultures, stages 4 and 5 are less frequent, and stage 6 was removed due to its rarity.  Moral Reasoning and Cognitive Development: o Kohlberg’s theory emphasizes that cognitive abilities, such as perspective- taking and abstract reasoning, are crucial for moral development. This involves evaluating situations, anticipating consequences, and applying social norms. Moral emotions  Cognition and Emotions in Moral Decision-Making: o Emotions are crucial in making moral and ethical decisions, as experts argue that it's impossible to make important moral judgments without emotions. o Emotions provide the motivational force behind moral actions, influencing individuals to do good and avoid bad actions. table 5.9 pg 138

Answer 99

o Level I: Pre-Conventional:  Stage 1: Children focus on punishment and obedience, deciding what's right based on avoidance of punishment.  Stage 2: Children follow rules based on self-interest, understanding that others have interests too. o Level II: Conventional:  Stage 3: Concern for meeting others' expectations, valuing intentions and loyalty.  Stage 4: Focus on societal duties and laws as the basis for defining right actions. o Level III: Post-Conventional:  Stage 5: Emphasizes social contracts, individual rights, and the welfare of the greater number.  Stage 6: Morality based on universal ethical principles, where actions align with personal ethical values, even if they conflict with social laws.  Moral Emotions: o Self-Conscious Emotions (e.g., guilt, shame, and embarrassment) help guide children to obey rules by avoiding uncomfortable feelings. o Other-Directed Emotions (e.g., righteous anger, contempt, disgust) arise in response to violations of community ethics, human dignity, and divinity. o Positive emotions (e.g., gratitude, joy, empathy) are acknowledged for their role in fostering ethical behaviour.

Answer 100

 Prosocial Dilemmas: Children are presented with situations where helping others requires personal sacrifice (e.g., missing a party to help someone).  Developmental Stages: As children grow, their reasoning evolves from self-interest to social approval, and finally to broader ethical principles.  Eisenberg recognizes the role of emotions like sympathy, pride, and guilt in prosocial decision-making, in contrast to Kohlberg, who emphasized cognitive reasoning alone.  Moral Emotions in Middle Childhood: o Increased interest in how moral emotions develop in middle childhood, with an acknowledgment of how cognitive and emotional development, theory of mind, and self-regulation influence moral reasoning.  Cultural Influence on Moral Reasoning: o Children in collectivist cultures may reach Level 5 (societal contractual obligations) earlier than those in more individualistic cultures, as collectivist societies emphasize responsibility for others. o Cultural values can influence emotional responses, and cultures may differ in the importance placed on empathy and emotionality, which in turn affects moral reasoning.  Socialization: o Children who are concerned with social approval are more likely to reason at Level 3 (approval-focused), whereas those raised with empathy are more likely to reason at Level 4 (empathy-focused), reflecting greater concern for others' well-being. o The degree of emotional empathy a child feels towards others impacts their willingness to help others. pg 141

Answer 101

Level 1: Hedonistic (Self-focused) – Concerned with self-needs and consequences for oneself, helping when it benefits them. Level 2: Needs-based – Concerned with others' needs, even when conflicting with their own, without self-reflective role-taking or emotional expression. Level 3: Approval/Stereotyped – Concerned with social acceptance and approval, often guided by stereotypes of good vs. bad people. Level 4a: Self-reflective, Empathic – Empathy and role-taking become central, with feelings of guilt for not helping and positive feelings for helping. Level 4b: Transitional – Justifications for helping are based on internalized values and societal duties, though these ideals may not be clearly articulated. Level 5: Strongly Internalized Values – Concern for personal values, societal obligations, and the rights of others, with emotions tied to living up to these values.  Influence of Personal Costs: o As the personal cost of helping increases (e.g., time, expense, or physical harm), children may offer hedonistic justifications for their actions, such as helping only when it benefits them. o The presence of others watching may influence children to act in ways that gain social approval.  Moral Emotions and Development: o Emotions like guilt, shame, and pride develop early and play a role in guiding moral behaviour, such as avoiding wrongdoings after feeling guilty. o Positive emotions like empathy are powerful in moral development, with children who deeply empathize with others' emotions being more inclined to help. o Perspective-taking is a key skill in moral development, as it allows children to understand others' thoughts and feelings, aiding in compassionate and fair responses.  Moral Emotions and Moral Reasoning: o While children generally feel good about making moral decisions, they may sometimes feel happy about immoral actions (e.g., bullying or taking possessions) if they gain something for themselves. o Children's emotional responses to social-moral events help categorize moral concepts, predicting whether they will act pro-socially or antisocially. Moral behaviour  Moral behaviour vs. Moral Thought: o Moral behaviour is often associated with fairness and unfairness, but moral thought alone doesn't always align with moral actions. People might think bullying is wrong, yet engage in such behaviour due to peer pressure, illustrating the gap between moral reasoning and actual behaviour. o While moral thought has received much attention in research, the link between moral reasoning and moral behaviour is not as thoroughly examined. This gap is partly due to the convenience of studying moral reasoning over actual moral conduct.

Answer 102

 Albert Bandura's theory argues that a comprehensive understanding of morality must consider how moral reasoning, emotion, and behaviour interact with environmental influences, all operating as bidirectional determinants. This means personal factors (e.g., moral reasoning) and external factors (e.g., environment, social influences) influence each other.  Factors affecting the judgment of wrongdoing include: o The nature of the transgression (how severe or frequent it is). o The context and motivators behind the action (e.g., personal reasons or social pressures). o The consequences of the action (short-term and long-term effects). o Damage caused, whether physical harm or property damage. o Whether the action targets individuals or faceless organizations. o Characteristics of the wrongdoer (age, gender, social status). o Characteristics of the victim (perceived blameworthiness).  Influence of Socialization: o Social sources such as laws, culture, parents, peers, school, and media shape children's moral rules and conduct. These influences help children learn which factors are morally relevant and how much importance to place on them. o As children gain more social experience and cognitive competence, their moral judgments evolve from simple rules to more complex, multidimensional judgments.  Individual Variation in Moral Competence: o Bandura found that individual differences in children's ability to integrate moral information are often greater than age-related differences. Some younger children might be better at integrating information than older ones. o The cognitive modelling of parents plays a crucial role here. Children model their parents' rules, and those with higher credibility (more effective models) lead to greater cognitive change in the child. However, this is not mindless mimicry; selective attention and inquiry are needed for effective moral development. Conclusion: This section underlines that moral behaviour is not solely the result of moral reasoning, but is also influenced by various psychosocial factors, socialization, and individual differences. As children grow and experience more of the world, their ability to make nuanced moral judgments evolves, shaped by the environments and models around them.

Answer 103

1. 2. 3. Family Influence: Family plays a significant role in children's moral development, with factors such as parental modelling, parenting styles, and discipline techniques affecting how children reason morally. For example, parents who encourage discussion and rational thinking tend to have children with higher moral reasoning. Additionally, children who are involved in prosocial behaviours like helping with chores or charity activities tend to develop stronger moral values. School Influence: Teachers also serve as role models for moral behaviour. The school's culture, including teachers' values and consistent discipline, can shape children's moral attitudes. Ideally, moral education should be integrated into the school curriculum, as many parents are not equipped to fully take on this responsibility. Peer Influence: Peer interactions, such as playing games with other children, help develop moral understanding by encouraging perspective-taking and recognition of fairness. Peer influence fosters a collective conscience, which can guide moral decision-making, particularly as children form their moral identities. 4. 5. 6. Cultural Influence: Culture plays a significant role in shaping moral beliefs and behaviours. Cultural values, traditions, and social norms influence what is considered morally acceptable or unacceptable. Differences in culture can lead to varying moral standards, highlighting the need to be mindful of cultural diversity in moral development. Media Influence: The media, particularly social media, can have both positive and negative effects on moral development. While the anonymity of the internet can lead to moral disengagement (e.g., cyberbullying), positive content can promote virtues like kindness, empathy, and creativity, thereby enhancing moral development. Brain Function and Cognitive Abilities: Brain development also plays a role in moral behaviour. Research indicates that moral reasoning is linked to specific brain regions, such as the prefrontal cortex (responsible for judgment and decision-making) and the amygdala (involved in processing emotions). While intelligence may not be directly related to moral development in younger children, cognitive abilities such as perspective-taking and anticipating consequences are essential for moral decision- making. Overall, moral development is a multifaceted process influenced by biological, cognitive, social, and cultural factors, and researchers stress the importance of understanding the interactions among these factors in explaining moral behaviour.

Answer 104

Global Religious Beliefs  About 60% of people worldwide define themselves as religious. The largest religions are Christianity (one-third of the world) and Islam (about a quarter). South Africa's Religious Landscape  Over 80% of South Africans are Christian, with 5% practicing traditional African religions. There are also many different interpretations within these religions. Decline in Organized Religion  Many countries, including South Africa, have seen a decline in formal religion in recent years. Religion's Role in Child Development  Experts agree that religion and spirituality significantly influence children’s development, particularly in promoting well-being and mental health.

Answer 105

a) b) c) d) Positive mental health and well-being. Reduced risky behaviours (e.g., drug abuse). Better communication and stronger family relationships. Resilience and coping mechanisms, especially for children from traumatic backgrounds.

Answer 106

a) b) c) d) Belief in a punishing God can negatively impact mental health. Religious guilt (e.g., related to masturbation) may lead to anxiety and depression. Some religious practices might suppress autonomy in children. Children may struggle to distinguish fact from fiction in religious teachings.

Answer 107

 The question of whether religion makes children more moral or if moral children are simply attracted to religion remains debated.  Non-religious people also engage in charitable and moral behaviour.

Answer 108

Fowler outlined seven stages of faith, focusing on stages in childhood such as:  Primal faith (infancy): Trust and support from caregivers.  Intuitive-projective faith (early childhood): Formation of concrete images of God and moral distinctions.  Mythical-literal faith (middle childhood): Literal interpretation of religious stories and moral cause/effect thinking.  Synthetic-conventional faith (adolescence): Acceptance of religious beliefs to fit in with peers. Criticism of Fowler’s Theory  Critics argue the theory is too broad, male-centred, and Euro-American, and it underestimates children's ability to question religious teachings.  Religious Rituals and Learning: Children learn religious values through participation in rituals, songs, prayers, and narratives. pg 149, 150

Chapter 5 Middle Childhood Flashcards

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