Chapter 4 - Research Design Fundamentals

Question 1

Variables

Answer 1

A condition in an experiment or a characteristic of an entity, person, or object that can take on different categories, levels, or values and that can be quantified.

Question 2

Operational definition

Answer 2

A description of something in terms of the operations (procedure, actions, or processes) by which it could be observed and measured

Question 3

Independent variables

Answer 3

The variable in an experiment that we specifically manipulated or its observed to occur before the dependent variable, in order to assess its effect or influence

Independent variables may or may not be causally related to the dependent variable

Question 4

Dependent variables

Answer 4

The outcome that is observed to occur or change after the occurrence or variation of the independent variable in an experiment, or the effect that one wants to predict or explain in correlational research

Outcome variable

Dependent variables may or may not be related causally to the independent variable

Question 5

Types of dependent variables (3)

Answer 5

1. Self-report
   - Participants’ explicit attitudes, judgments, thoughts, or characteristics
2. Behavioural
   - Observing and coding participants’ behaviours
3. Physiological
   - Biological data (e.g. heart rate)

Question 6

Control variables

Answer 6

The factors that are kept the same to ensure that the results are caused by the manipulated variable

A variable that is considered to have an effect on the response measure in a study but that itself is not of particular interest to the researcher

Question 7

Confounding variables

Answer 7

An independent variable that is conceptually distinct but empirically inseparable from one or more other independent variables.

Confounding makes it impossible to differentiate that variable’s effects in isolation from its effects in conjunction with other variables.

Question 8

Summary of variables

Answer 8

Situational Variables
* Independent Variables

Response Variables
* Dependent Variables

Participant Variables
* Control Variables

Confounding Variables

Question 9

Non-Experimental Method

Answer 9

A research project that is lacking manipulation of independent variables by a researcher or random assignment of participants to treat conditions

A form of a correlational study → measure two things and find relation

Question 10

Correlational Research

Answer 10

A type of study in which relationships between variables are simply
observed without any control over the setting in which those relationships occur or any manipulation by the researcher.

Question 11

Correlation

Answer 11

The degree of a relationship (usually linear) between two variables, which may be quantified as a correlation coefficient.

Question 12

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Answer 12

A numerical index reflecting the degree of linear relationship between two variables.

It is scaled so that the value of +1 indicates a perfect positive relationship (such that high scores on variable x are associated with high scores on variable y), –1 indicates a perfect negative relationship (such that high scores on variable x are associated with low scores on variable y, or vice versa), and 0 indicates no relationship.

Question 13

Correlation Matrix

Answer 13

A symmetrical square matrix displaying the degree of association between all possible pairs of variables contained in a set.

Question 14

Non-Linear Relationships

Answer 14

An association between two variables in which the direction and rate of change fluctuate.

Non-linear relationships describe any relationship between two variables (x and y) that cannot be expressed in the form y = a + bx, where a and b are numerical constants.

The relationship therefore does not appear as a straight line when depicted graphically.

Question 15

Mediating Variables

Answer 15

Mediator: an intermediary or intervening variable that accounts for an observed relation between two other variables.

Question 16

Limitations of Correlational Research

Answer 16

Correlational research cannot explain:
* the direction of cause and effect (did B follow A or did A follow B?)
* a third, unmeasured, variable is responsible for the observed association between two other variables (C is affecting both A and B)

Question 17

Criteria for Causal Claims

Answer 17

1. Coverariation
2. Temporal Precedence
3. Nonspuriousness

Question 18

Covariation

Answer 18

Covariation: a relationship between two quantitive variables such that as one variable tends to increase (or decrease) in value, the corresponding values of the other variable tend to also increase (or decrease)

As one variable changes, so does the other one

Method: measurement

Question 19

Temporal Precedence

Answer 19

Temporal Precedence: in establishing cause effect relationships between two variables, the principle that the cause must be shown to have occurred before the effect

Need cause to occur before effect

Method: experimental conditions & manipulation

Question 20

Nonspuriousness

Answer 20

Nonspuriousness: there are no plausible alternative explanations for the observed relationship

No other possible explanation for some relationship

Method: random assignment

Question 21

Experimental Method

Answer 21

Research utilizing randomized assignment of participants to conditions and systematic manipulation of variables with the objective of drawing causal inference

Question 22

Random Assignment

Answer 22

Random Assignment: the assignment of participants of units to the different conditions of an experiment entirely at random, so that each unit or participant has an equal likelihood of being assigned to any particular condition

Allow us to eliminate undermining differences in a population sample, as conditions should be balanced

Question 23

Experimental Manipulation

Answer 23

In an experiment, the manipulation of one or more independent variables in order to investigate their effect on a dependent variable

Manipulate independent variable to measure effect on dependent variable

Question 24

Condition

Answer 24

A level of the independent variable

Question 25

Experimental Conditions

Answer 25

A level of the independent variable that is manipulated by the researcher in order to assess the effect on a dependent variable

Participants in an experimental condition receive some form of treatment or experience whereas those in a control condition do not

Question 26

Experimental Control

Answer 26

The regulation of all extraneous conditions and variables in an experiment so that any change in the dependent variable can be attributed solely to manipulation of the independent variable and not to any other factors.

Question 27

Control Condition

Answer 27

In an experiment or research design, a condition that does not involve exposure to the treatment or intervention under study.

Does not receive intervention for variable manipulated in the study

Control allows for comparison

Question 28

Internal Validity

Answer 28

The degree to which a study or experiment is free from flaws in its internal structure and its results can therefore be taken to represent the true nature of the phenomenon

Free from flaws in the way its designed

Internal validity pertains to the soundness of results obtained within the conditions of a particular study, specifically with respect to whether one can draw a reasonable conclusion about cause-and-effect relationships among variables

Question 29

Ecological Validity

Answer 29

The degree to which results obtained from research or experimentation are representative of conditions in the wider world

Are the results representative of what would happen in the real world?

Question 30

Field Research

Answer 30

Studies conducted outside the laboratory, in a “real-world” setting, which typically involve observing or interacting with participants in their typical environments.

Field research has the advantages of ecological validity and the opportunity to understand how and why behavior occurs in a natural social environment; it has the disadvantages of loss of environmental control and ability to do precise experimental manipulations.

Thus, field research is often said to have more external validity and less internal validity than laboratory-based research.