Flashcards in Chapter 5- Physical Development In Infancy And Toddlerhood Deck (123):
1
Baby fat helps the infant:
Maintain a constant body temperature
2
Describe sex and ethnic differences in body size and muscle fat make up during infancy
Sex differences: girls are slightly shorter and lighter than boys, with a higher ratio of fat to muscle
Ethnic differences: Asians are below North American in gross norms. African-American children are larger in size
3
A growth pattern from the Latin word for head to tail. During the prenatal period, the head develops more rapidly than the lower part of the body
Cephalocaudal trend
4
A growth pattern where gross proceeds from here to far, from the center of the body outward. In the prenatal period, the head, chest, and trunk grow first, then the arms and legs, and finally the hands and feet
Proximodistal trend
5
The best estimate of a child's physical maturity is this, a measure of development of the bones of the body
Skeletal age.
6
How is an estimate of a child's physical maturity using skeletal age obtained?
Special growth centers, called epiphyses Pier at the two extreme ends of each of the long bones of the body and cartilage cells continue to be produced at the growth plates of these epiphyses, which increase in numbers throughout childhood and then, as growth continues, get thinner and disappear. Skeletal age can be estimated by x-raying the bones and seeing the number of epiphyses and the extent to which they are fused
7
True or false: African-American children tend to be slightly behind Caucasian-American children in skeletal age
False, African-American children tend to be slightly ahead of Caucasian-American children in skeletal age
8
What are three possible consequences of girls greater physical maturity during infancy and childhood?
Contributes to girls greater resistance to harmful environmental influences. Girls experience fewer developmental problems than boys, and have lower infant and childhood mortality rates
9
At birth, the bones of the skull are separated by six gaps, or soft spots called
Fontanels. Permit the bones to overlap as the large head of the baby passes through the mothers narrow birth canal
10
The human brain has 100 to 200 billion ________, or nerve cells, that store and transmit information by releasing chemicals called ______________ across tiny gaps called ______________
Neurons, neurotransmitters, synapses
11
Neurons that are seldom stimulated soon lose their synapses through this process that returns neurons not needed at the moment to an uncommitted state so that they can support future development
Synaptic pruning
12
About half the brains volume is made up of ________, which are responsible for ______________, The coating of neural fibers with an insulating fatty sheath that improves the efficiency of message transfer
Glial cells, myelination
13
Method for measuring brain functioning. Electrodes embedded in a head cap record electrical brainwave activity in the brains outer layers, the cerebral cortex.
Electroencephalogram EEG
14
A method for measuring brain functioning. Using the EEG, the frequency and amplitude of brain waves in response to particular stimuli are recorded in the cerebral cortex. Enables identification of general regions of stimulus induced activity
Event-related potentials
15
A method for measuring brain functioning. While the person lies inside a tunnel-shaped apparatus that creates a magnetic field, a scanner mechanically detects increased blood flow and oxygen metabolism in areas of the brain as the individual processes particular stimuli.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI
16
A method for measuring brain functioning. After injection or inhalation of a radioactive substance, the person lies on an apparatus with a scanner that emits fine streams of x-rays, which detect increased blood flow and oxygen metabolism in areas of the brain as the person processes particular stimuli
Positron emission tomography PET
17
A method for measuring brain functioning. Using thin, flexible optical fibers attached to the scalp through a head cap, infrared light is beamed at the brain; it's absorption by areas of the cerebral cortex varies with changes in blood flow and oxygen metabolism as the individual processes particular stimuli
Near-infrared spectroscopy
18
True or false: near-infrared spectroscopy works well in infancy and childhood because the child can sit on the parents lap and move during testing, unlike other methods of measuring brain functioning
True
19
This is the largest brain structure, accounting for 85% of the brains weight and containing the greatest number of neurons and synapses
Cerebral cortex
20
This cortical region, lying in front of areas controlling body movement, is responsible for thought, in particular for consciousness, inhibition of impulses, integration of information, and use of memory, reasoning, planning, and problem-solving strategies
The prefrontal cortex
21
Which hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is largely responsible for verbal abilities such as spoken and written language, and positive emotions such as joy
The left hemisphere
22
Which hemisphere of the cerebral cortex handles spatial abilities such as judging distances, reading maps, and recognizing geometric shapes and negative emotion such as distress
The right hemisphere
23
How do lateralization and brain plasticity help the brain learn and adapt
Lateralization, specialization of the two hemispheres happens because each side of the brain is specialized for certain purposes. The left hemisphere is better at processing information in a sequential, analytic way, a good approach for dealing with communicative information. The right hemisphere is specialized for processing information in a holistic, integrative manner, ideal for making sense of spatial information and regulating negative emotion. He lateralized brain may have evolved because it enabled humans to cope more successfully with changing environmental demands and permits a wide area functions to be carried out effectively than if both sides processed information in the same way
Brain plasticity: a highly plastic cerebral cortex, in which many areas are not yet committed to a specific function, has a high capacity for learning. If part of the cortex is damaged, other parts can take over the tasks it would've handled
24
The brain is more/less plastic during the first few years then at any later time in life
More
25
Adults who suffered brain injuries in infancy and early childhood show fewer/more cognitive impairments and adults with later occurring injuries
Fewer
26
Describe the impact of brain injury on childhood language development and spatial skills, noting how this relates to brain plasticity
Children showed delays in language development that persisted until about 3 1/2 years of age which indicates that at first, language functioning is broadly distributed in the brain but by age 5, the children caught up in the vocabulary and grammatical skills because undamaged areas in the left or right hemisphere had taken over these language functions
Spatial skills were more impaired after early brain injury, when asked to copy designs, those with early right-hemispheric damage had trouble with elastic processing, accurately representing the overall shape. Children with left-hemisphere damaged captured the basic shape but omitted fine-grained details but children still showed improvement in their drawings with Age
Recovery after early brain injury is greater for language then for spatial skills
27
True or false: recovery after early brain injury is greater for language than for spatial skills
True
28
What are the negative consequences of high brain plasticity?
Despite impressive recovery of language and spatial skills, children with early brain injuries so deficits in a wide variety of complex mental abilities such as slower reading and math progress, simpler narratives in telling stories, poor scores on intelligence tests.
Hi brain plasticity comes at a price. When healthy brain regions take over the functions of damaged areas, a crowding effect occurs: multiple tasks must be done by a smaller than usual volume of brain tissue and consequently the brain processes information less quickly and accurately than it would if it were intact
29
True or false: brain plasticity is restricted to early childhood and is no longer evident by the time individuals reach adulthood. Explain your response
False, brain plasticity is not restricted to early childhood. Although far more limited, reorganization in the brain can occur later, for example, adult stroke victims often display consider bro recovery and brain imaging techniques reveal that structures adjacent to the permanently damaged area or in the opposite cerebral hemisphere re-organize to support the impaired ability
The adult brain can produce a small number of new neurons and when an individual practices relevant tasks, the brain strengthens existing synapses and generates new ones
30
Extreme _________ ___________ results in permanent brain damage, confirming the existence of sensitive periods in brain development
Sensory deprivation
31
What does research on orphanage children reveal about cognitive catch up?
Cognitive catch up was impressive for children adopted before six months, who consistently attained average mental test scores in childhood and adolescence.
But Romanian children who had been institutionalized for more than the first six months showed serious intellectual deficits. Although the improved in test scores during middle childhood and adolescence, they remain substantially below average and most displayed at least three serious mental health problems such as inattention, overactivity, unruly behavior, and autistic like symptoms
32
True or false: good parenting can protect the young brain from the potentially damaging effects of both excessive and inadequate stress hormone exposure
False, these children often display attachment difficulties that even a caring adopted family cannot completely overcome
33
Refers to the young brains rapidly developing organization, which depends on ordinary experiences, opportunities to see and touch objects to hear language and other sounds, and to move about and explore the environment
Experience-expectant brain growth
34
This type of brain growth occurs throughout our lives. It consists of additional growth and the refinement of established brain structures as a result of specific learning experiences that vary widely across individuals and cultures. Includes reading and writing, playing computer games, weaving a rug, and practicing the violin for example.
Experience-dependent brain growth
35
Evidence does/does not exist for a sensitive. In the first years of life for mastering skills that depend on extensive training, such as musical performance or gymnastics
Does not. Rushing early learning also harms the brain by overwhelming it's neural circuits, thereby reducing the brain sensitivity to the every day experiences it needs for a healthy start in life
36
In general, newborn babies sleep a total of ___ to ___ hours per day. The total sleep time of an infant declines quickly/slowly; The average two-year-old sleeps ___ to ___ hours per day
16 to 18 hours, slowly, 12 to 13 hours
37
The brain hormone that promotes drowsiness is called
Melatonin
38
True or false: 90% of North American parents cosleep with their babies
False, in United States and estimated 13% of infants routinely bed share, and an additional 30 to 35% sometimes do
39
True or false: among the Maya, mother-infant cosleeping is interrupted only by the birth of a new baby
True, after the birth of a new baby, the older child is moved next to the father or to another bed in the same room
40
True or false: compared to Caucasian-American families, African-American families are more likely to cosleep with their children
True
41
True or false: parent-child cosleeping is more common in collectivist than individualistic societies
True
42
True or false: over the past two decades, cosleeping has decreased in western nations
False, it has increased
43
True or false: during the night, cosleeping babies breast-feed three times longer than infants who sleep alone
True
44
True or false: parent-child cosleeping is a significant risk factor for SIDS
False, because infants aroused to nurse more often when sleeping next to their mothers, some researchers believe that cosleeping may actually help safeguard babies at risk for SIDS.
45
True or false: cosleeping reduces mothers total sleep time
False, cosleeping does not reduce mothers total sleep time
46
True or false: research consistently shows that cosleeping children are significantly more likely than their peers to have emotional problems
False
47
List two groups of parents who should probably not go sleep with their babies
Parents who are obese or who use alcohol, tobacco, or illegal drugs
48
True or false: when diet and health are adequate, height and rate of physical growth are largely determined by heredity
True. As long as negative environmental influences such as poor nutrition or illness are not severe, children and adolescents typically show catchup growth, a return to a genetically determined growth path once conditions improve
49
Under what circumstances are children and adolescents who suffer from illness or poor nutrition likely to show catch up growth
As long as negative environmental influences such as poor nutrition or illness are not severe
50
List for nutritional and health benefits of breast milk
Provides the correct balance of fat and protein
Ensures nutritional completeness
Helps ensure healthy physical growth: one your old breast-fed babies are leaner, have a higher percentage of muscle to fat which may help them to prevent later overweight and obesity
Protects against many diseases
Protects against faulty jaw development and tooth decay
Ensures digestibility
51
List two ways that breast-feeding can benefit mothers and infants in poverty-stricken regions of the world
Breast-fed babies are much less likely to be malnourished and 6 to 14 times more likely to survive the first year of life. These practices would save the lives of more than 1 million infants annually. Offer some protection against respiratory and intestinal infections, which are devastating to young children in developing countries.
Because a nursing mother is less likely to get pregnant, breast-feeding helps increase spacing among siblings, A major factor in reducing infant and child deaths in nations with widespread poverty
52
Rapid weight gain in infancy is/is not related to obesity at older ages
Is. Recent evidence does indicate a strengthening relationship between rapid weight gain in infancy and later obesity which may be due to the rise in overweight and obesity among adults, who promote unhealthy eating habits in their young children. Most chubby babies, however, thin out during toddlerhood
53
What are three ways in which parents can prevent infants and toddlers from becoming overweight at later ages
Breast-feed for the first six months which is associated with lower weight gain over the first year and gleaner body build throughout early childhood
Avoid giving them food loaded with sugar, salt, and saturated fats
Give toddlers plenty of opportunities for energetic plate once they learn to walk climb and run
Limit the time very young children spend in front of the TV as there is a correlation between excessive television viewing and overweight in older children
54
A wasted condition of the body caused by a diet low in all essential nutrients. Usually appears in the first year of life when a baby's mother is to malnourished to produce enough breastmilk and bottlefeeding is also inadequate. Her starving baby becomes painfully thin and is in danger of dying
Marasmus
55
Caused by an unbalanced diet very low in protein. The disease usually strikes after weaning, between one and three years of age. Common in regions were children get just enough calories from starchy foods but little protein. The child's body responds by breaking down it's own protein reserves, which causes swelling and other symptoms
Kwashiorkor
56
What are the consequences of extreme malnutrition?
Low basal metabolism rate, improve diet leads to catch up growth in height but not in head size, permanent loss in brain weight, Low scores on intelligence tests, poor fine motor coordination, difficulty paying attention, intense stress response, with drawl and listlessness
57
True or false: inadequate nutrition is largely confined to developing countries, and recent surveys indicate that it is almost nonexistent in the United States and Canada
Balls, because government supported supplementary food programs do not reach all families in need, and estimated 22% of US children suffer from food insecurity, uncertain access to enough food for a healthy, active life
58
A term applied to infants whose weight, height, and head circumference are substantially below age-related growth norms and you are withdrawn and apathetic. In as many as half such cases, a disturbed parent-infant relationship contributes to this failure to grow normally
Growth faltering
59
Discuss the family circumstances that often surround growth faltering
An unhappy marriage, parental psychological disturbance, and irritable baby who displays abnormal feeding behavior such as poor sucking or vomiting that both disrupts growth and lead parents to feel anxious and helpless which stresses the parent-infant relationship further
60
Refers to changes in behavior as a result of experience
Learning
61
What are the two basic forms of learning in which infants are equipped
Classical and operant conditioning
62
Newborn reflexes making this type of learning possible in the up young infant. In this form of learning, a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response. Once the babies nervous system makes the connection between the two stimuli, the neutral stimulus produces the behavior by itself
Classical conditioning
63
Why is classical conditioning of great value to infants?
Helps infants recognize which events usually occur together in the everyday world, so they can anticipate what is about to happen next. As a result, the environment becomes more orderly and predictable
64
A neutral stimulus that leads to a new response once learning has occurred
Conditioned stimulus
65
A learned response exhibited toward a previously neutral stimulus
Conditioned response
66
A reflexive response
Unconditioned response
67
A stimulus that automatically leads to a reflexive response
Unconditioned stimulus
68
In classical conditioning, if the CS is presented alone enough times, without being paired with the UCS, the CR will no longer occur. This is referred to as
Extinction
69
Some responses, such as ___________, are very difficult to classically conditioned and young babies. Explain why.
Fear. Until infants have the motor skills to escape unpleasant events, they have no biological need to form these associations. After age 6 months, however, fear is easy to condition
70
With this type of learning, infants act, or operate, on the environment, and stimuli that follow their behavior change the probability that the behavior will occur again
Operant conditioning
71
A stimulus that increases the occurrence of a response.
Reinforcer. For example, sweet liquid reinforces the sucking response in newborns
72
Removing a desirable stimulus or presenting an unpleasant one to decrease the occurrence of a response is called
Punishment. A sour tasting fluid punish his newborn baby sucking response and causes them to purse their lips and stop sucking entirely
73
Describe how operant conditioning contributes to the development of social relationships
As the baby gazes into the adults eyes, the adult looks and smiles back, and then the infant looks and smiles again. As the behavior of each partner reinforces the other, both continue their pleasurable interaction
74
Refers to a gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation
Habituation
75
When a new stimulus, a change in the environment, causes responsiveness to return to a high-level, and increase called
Recovery
76
As infants get older, they habituate to stimuli more slowly/quickly. What does this indicate about their cognitive development?
Quickly, indicating that they process information more efficiently
77
Babies come into the world with a primitive ability to learn through this, by copying the behavior of another person
Imitation
78
Scientists have identified specialized cells in many areas of the cerebral cortex of primates that underlie imitation capacities. They fire identically when a primate hears or sees an action and when it carries out that action on its own
Mirror neurons
Humans have especially elaborate systems of mirror neurons, which enable us to observe another person's behavior while simulating the behavior in our own brain. They are believed to be the biological basis of a variety of interrelated, complex social abilities, including imitation, empathic sharing of emotions, and understanding of others intentions
79
Refers to control over actions that help infants get around in the environment, such as crawling, standing, and walking
Gross-motor development
80
Refers to smaller movements, such as reaching and grasping
Fine-motor development
81
True or false: although the sequence of motor development is fairly uniform, large individual differences exist in the rate of development
True
82
According to this theory, mastery of motor skills involved acquiring increasingly complex systems of action. When motor skills work as a system, separate abilities blend together, each cooperating with each other to produce more effective ways of exploring and controlling the environment
Dynamic systems theory of motor development
For example, control of the head and upper chest combine into sitting with support. Kicking, rocking on all fours, and reaching, combine to become crawling and then crawling standing in stepping are united into walking
83
List for factors that contribute to the development of each new motor skill
Central nervous system development, the bodies movement capacities, the goals the child has in mind, environmental supports for the skill
84
True or false: dynamic systems theory regards motor development as a genetically determined process. Explain your response.
Falls, it shows us why motor development cannot be genetically determined. Because it is motivated by exploration and the desire to master new tasks, heredity can map it out only add a general level. Rather than being hardwired into the nervous system, behaviors are softly assembled, allowing for different paths to the same motor skill
85
What did Galloway and Thelen's microgenetic studies reveal about infant motor development?
They held sounding toys alternately in front of infants hands and feet, from the time they first showed interest until they engaged in well coordinated reaching and grasping for. The infants violated the normative sequence of arm and hand control proceeding leg and foot control. They first explore the toys with their feet at least a month before with their hands. Because the hip joint constrains the legs to move less freely than the shoulder joint constrains the arms, infants could more easily control their leg movements. Consequently, foot reaching required far less practice then hand reaching
86
In Wayne Dennis's orphanage research, what effects did lying on their backs have on babies motor development?
Observed infants in Iranian orphanages who were deprived of the tantalizing surroundings that induce infants to acquire motor skills as they spend their days lying on their backs and cramps without toys to play with. As a result, most did not move on their own until after two years of age and when they did move the concert experience of lying on their backs led them to scoot in a sitting position rather than crawl on their hands and knees. Because babies who scoot come up against furniture with their feet and not their hands, they are far less likely to pull themselves to a standing position in preparation for walking so by 3 to 4 years of age, only 15% were walking alone
87
Give at least one example of how cultural variations in infant-rearing practices affect motor development
Among the Zinacanteco Indians of southern Mexico and the Gusii of Kenya, rapid motor progress is actively discouraged because babies who walk before they know enough to keep away from cooking fires and weaving looms are viewed as dangerous to themselves and disruptive to others
In the west Indians of Jamaica, babies hold their heads up, sit alone, and walk considerably earlier the North American infants because babies are seated in holes dug in the ground with her old blankets to keep them up right and walking is promoted by frequently standing babies and adults laps and bouncing them on their feet
88
Poorly coordinated swipes or swings toward an object
Pre-reaching
89
A clumsy motion in which the young infants fingers close against the palm
Ulnar grasp
90
A well coordinated movement in which infants use the thumb and index finger opposably
Pincer grasp
91
Explain how reaching and depth perception are related
Reaching improves as depth perception advances and as infants gain greater control of body posture and arm and hand movements
92
Does heavy enrichment lead to advanced motor development in infancy? Explain
Heavy enrichment can take its toll. Infants who are given a massive amount of visual stimulation reach sooner than unstimulated babies but they looked away and cried a great deal, and they were less advanced in reaching then the moderately stimulated group
93
At what age should parents begin toilet training their children? Why is this an appropriate age for most children?
Best delayed until the months following the second birthday, when children can consistently identify the signals from a full bladder or wrecked him and wait for the right place to open these muscles-physiological developments essential for the child to cooperate with training
94
Name three effective toilet training techniques
Establishing regular toileting routine's for example after getting up or eating or before going to bed, using gentle encouragement, and praising children for their efforts
95
What is the greatest change in hearing that takes place over the first year of life?
Babies start to organize sounds into complex patterns
96
Describe the changes in auditory perception over the first year of life that prepare infants for language acquisition
Around five months: infants display a sense of musical phrasing. They prefer Mozart minuets with pauses between phases to those with awkward breaks
6 to 8 months: can distinguish musical tunes on the basis of variations in rhythmic patterns, including beat structure and accent structure
7 to 9 months: infants recognize the same melody when it is played in different keys
97
Infants have an impressive ________ _________ _________. By analyzing the speech stream for patterns-repeatedly occurring sequences of sounds-they acquire a stock of speech structures for which they will later learn meanings, long before they start to talk around age 12 months
Statistical learning capacity
98
Describe changes in the ability to perceive familiar speech and familiar faces over the first year of life
Familiar speech: to share experiences with members of their family and community, babies must become skilled at making perceptual discriminations that are meaningful in their culture. Around six months of age infants narrow their focus, limiting the distinctions they make to language they hear and will soon learn
For Milyer faces: after habituating to one member of each pair of faces, six month old were shown that the Milyer and novel faces side-by-side. For both pairs, the recovered two or look longer at the novel face, indicating that they could discriminate the individual faces of both humans and monkeys equally well. But at nine months, infants no longer showed a novelty preference when viewing the monkey pair they can only distinguish the human faces
99
How do research findings on musical rhythm perception support the notion of a sensitive period for culture-specific learning
Western adults can easily notice rhythmic changes that disrupts the familiar western music beats but cannot pick up on rhythmic pattern deviations of other cultures music. Six month olds can detect disruptions for both Western and non-western melodies but by 12 months, after added exposure to western music, babies are no longer aware of deviations in foreign musical rhythms although their sensitivity to western rhythmic structure remains unchanged.
These findings suggest a heightened capacity or sensitive. In the second half of the first year, when babies are biologically prepared to zero in on socially meaningful perceptual distinctions
100
The ability to judge the distance of objects from one another and from ourselves. Important for understanding the layout of the environment and for guiding motor activity
Depth perception
101
Describe Gibson and walks visual cliff, and explain what their studies reveal about infant depth perception
Consists of a plexiglass covered table with a platform at the center, a shallow side with a checkerboard pattern just under the glass, and a deep side with a checkerboard several feet below the glass. The researchers found that crawling babies readily cross the shallow side, but most avoided the deep side. They concluded that around the time infants crawl, most distinguished deep from shallow surfaces and avoid drop off's
102
Name and briefly describe the three cues for depth
Motion: 3 to 4 week old babies blink their eyes defensively when an object moves toward their face and as they are carried around and people and things turn and move before their eyes, infants learn more about depth. Three months old motion has help them figure out that objects are not flat but three-dimensional
Binocular depth cues: arise because our two eyes have slightly different views of the visual field and the brain blends these two images, resulting in perception of depth
Pictorial depth cues: between five and seven months, the ones artists often used to make a painting look three-dimensional such as receding lines that create the illusion of perspective, changes in texture, overlapping objects, height in the picture plane, and shadows cast on surfaces
103
Explain what infants learn from crawling that promotes sensitivity to depth information
Crawling experience promotes other aspects of three-dimensional understanding. For example, seasoned crawlers are better than their inexperienced age mates at remembering object locations and finding hidden objects. Crawling promotes a new level of brain organization and may strengthen certain neural connections, especially those involved in vision and understanding of space
104
This general principle explains early pattern preferences. States that if infants can detect a difference in contrast between two or more patterns, they will prefer the one with more contrast
Contrast sensitivity
105
True or false: by the end of the first year, a suggestive image of a pattern is all that babies need to recognize a familiar form
True
106
Summarize the development of face perception across the first year of life
Birth to one month: although newborns respond to face like structures, they cannot discriminate a complex facial pattern from other, equally complex patterns but from repeated exposures to the mothers face, they quickly learn to prefer her face to that of an unfamiliar woman
2 to 4 months: when they can combine pattern elements into an organized whole, babies prefer a complex drawing of the human face to other equally complex stimulus arrangements and they clearly prefer their mothers detailed facial features to those of another woman
Around three months, infants readily make fine distinctions among the features of different faces
5 to 12 months: infants perceive emotional expressions as meaningful wholes they treat positive faces happy and surprised as different from negative ones sad and fearful
107
True or false: children with severe visual impairments show delays in motor, cognitive, and social development
True
108
Give two reasons why children with visual impairments reach motor milestones later then there sighted counterparts
They must rely on sound to identify the whereabouts of objects but sound does not function as a precise clue to object location until much later than vision, around the middle of the first year
Because infants who cannot see have difficulty engaging their caregivers, adults may not provide them with Rich early exposure to sounding objects and as a result the baby comes to understand relatively late that there is a world of interesting objects to explore
The babies build an understanding of location and arrangement of objects in space only after reaching and crawling. Inability to imitate the motor actions of others presents additional challenges as these children get older
109
How do severe visual impairments affect the caregiver-infant relationship
They have great difficulty evoking stimulating caregiver interaction. They cannot make eye contact, imitate, or pick up nonverbal social cues. Their emotional expressions are muted for example their smile is fleeting and unpredictable. And because they cannot gays in the same direction as a partner, they are greatly delayed in establishing a shared focus of attention on objects as the basis for play and consequently, these infants me receive little adult attention and other stimulation vital for all aspects of development. Communication is therefore compromised in early childhood
110
What are five intervention techniques that can help infants with severe visual impairments become aware of their physical and social surroundings
Heightened sensory input through combining sound and touch for example holding, touching, or bringing the babies hands to the adults face while talking or singing,
engaging in many repetitions,
and consistently reinforcing the infants efforts to make contact.
Manipulative play with objects that make sounds is also vital.
Rich language stimulation can compensate for visual loss
111
Perception of an objects size as the same, despite changes in the size of its retinal image. Evident in the first week of life
Size constancy
112
Perception of an objects shape as stable, despite changes in the shape projected on the retina
Sheep constancy. Present within the first week of life
113
True or false: size and shape constancy emerge gradually over time as infants acquire more advanced knowledge of objects in the environment
False, both size and shape constancy seem to be built-in capacities that assist babies in detecting a coherent world of objects
114
True or false: when two objects are touching, whether moving in unison or standing still, infants younger than four months of age do not perceive the boundary between the two objects, and therefore cannot distinguish them
True
115
This is simultaneous input from more than one modality or sensory system
Intermodal stimulation
116
With this type of perception, we make sense of these running streams of light, sound, tactile, older, and paste information, perceiving them as integrated wholes. We know for example, that an object's shape is the same whether we see it or touch it, that lip movements are closely coordinated with the sound of a voice, and that dropping a rigid object on a hard surface will cause a sharp banging sound
Intermodal perception
117
Information that is not specific to a single modality but that overlaps two or more sensory systems, such as rate, rhythm, duration, intensity, temporal synchrony, and texture and shape
Amodal sensory properties
118
True or false: from birth, infants are capable of combining information from multiple sensory systems. Cite research to support your answer
True, after touching an object placed in their palms, they recognize it visually, distinguishing it from a different shaped object. And they require just one exposure to learn the association between the sight and sound at the toy, such as a rhythmically jingling rattle
119
Explain how intermodal perception helps broaden the infants social world
As 3 to 4 month olds gaze at an adult's face they initially require both vocal and visual input to distinguish positive from negative emotional expressions. Only later do infants discriminate positive from negative emotion in each sensory modality, first in voices and later in faces.
120
True or false: exposure to concurrent sights, sounds, and touches is often too overwhelming for infants, hindering cognitive development. Explain your answer
False, babies process more information and learn faster when caregivers provide many concurrent sights, sounds, and touches
121
According to this theory, infants actively search for invariant features of the environment-those that remain stable-in a constantly changing perceptual world
Gibsons differentiation theory
122
According to differentiation theory, perception is guided by the discovery of _________, or the action possibilities that a situation offers an organism with certain motor capabilities
Affordances
123