CHAPTER 5: WHEAT FLOUR Flashcards
1
Q
Is wheat a cereal grain?
A
Yes
2
Q
Name four other cereal grains.
A
Corn (maize), oats, rice and rye.
3
Q
Widespread consumption of cereal grains began when and where?
A
Middle East about 10,000 years ago, when agriculture first began. It was then that wheat was first planted and cultivated.
4
Q
Are thousands of different wheat varieties grown throughout the world?
A
Yes
5
Q
What parts of North America have ideal conditions for wheat?
A
Midwest and southern prairie region of Canada.
6
Q
Name four other major wheat growing countries.
A
China (more than everyone), India, France, and Russia.
7
Q
Most popular cereal grain used in baked goods.
A
Wheat
8
Q
Where does wheat’s popularity stem from?
A
The gluten that forms when flour is mixed with water. Also preferred for its mild, nutty flavor.
9
Q
Are wheat kernels seeds of the wheat plant?
A
Yes
10
Q
What part of the wheat plant is illdd into flour?
A
Kernel
11
Q
Are cereal grains in the grass family?
A
Yes
12
Q
When a field of wheat starts to grow what does it look like?
A
A lawn of grass.
13
Q
Three main parts of a wheat kernel.
A
Endosperm, germ and bran.
14
Q
What is white flour milled from?
A
The endosperm.
15
Q
Why is wheat flour considered a whole wheat product?
A
It contains the entire wheat kernel.
16
Q
What makes up the largest part of a wheat kernel?
A
Endosperm is about 80%.
17
Q
Why is endosperm so white?
A
Because it contains mostly starch, around 70 to 75%.
18
Q
The starch of an endosperm is tightly packed into starch granules, which are embedded in what?
A
Chunks of protein.
19
Q
Two important proteins in the endosperm are what?
A
Glutenin and gliadin.
20
Q
Wheat is the only cereal grain that contains sufficient what? For what?
A
Glutenin and gliadin for good quality formation of gluten in bread making.
21
Q
What is the embryo of the wheat plant?
A
The germ.
22
Q
What part of the wheat plant germinates given the right conditions?
A
Germ
23
Q
How much of the kernel is made up of wheat germ?
A
2.5%
24
Q
What percent of protein is the germ?
A
25%
25
Wheat germ is high in protein and...
fat, B vitamins, vitamin E and minerals; all important to the germ as it sprouts.
26
Does germ protein form gluten?
No
27
Can wheat germ be purchased and added to goods?
Yes
28
How is wheat germ typically sold?
Toasted
29
What does toasting do to wheat germ?
Adds a nutty flavor and destroys enzymes called lipases, present in wheat germ that break down oils and cause them to oxidize.
30
What wheat gym contribute to the structure of baked goods?
No
31
Why is wheat germ typically added as an ingredient?
Its nutritional value.
32
Why store wheat germ in the refrigerator?
It's high in polyunsaturated oils that oxidize easily.
33
What is the bran?
Protective outer layer covering the wheat kernel.
34
Is the bran usually darker than the endosperm?
Yes, much darker; white wheat, which has a lighter color, is also available.
35
What is bran high in?
Dietary fiber.
36
Bran is about what percent fiber? What kind of fiber?
42% insoluble fiber.
37
Percentage of protein in bran.
15%
38
Is bran high in protein, fat, vitamins and minerals?
Yes
39
Do bran protein form gluten?
No
40
Do wheat germ and bran interfere with gluten development?
Yes
41
How can whet bran be purchased?
As small flakes.
42
Does bran change during the baking process?
While it may soften slightly, bran remains relatively unchanged.
43
Is bran a moistener or a drier?
Neither
44
Besides nutritional value, what does bran add to baking?
A dark, rustic appearance and distinct nutty flavor.
45
Are dark colored products all whole grain?
Not necessarily. often, molasses or caramel coloring is added to baked goods to give them a heartier look.
46
Do products like seven-grain bread or stone-ground flour guarantee a whole grain product?
No
47
What is dietary fiber?
Plant matter that humans cannot digest. Classified as soluble of insoluble.
48
What is soluble fiber?
Fiber that will thicken or form a gel when placed in water.
49
What is insoluble fiber?
Fiber that will sink or float in water but remains essentially unchanged because it does not absorb what.
50
What does insoluble fiber do for the body?
Improves intestinal health and is thought to reduce the risks of certain cancers.
51
What does soluble fiber do for the body?
Lowers blood cholesterol and can reduce the risk of heart disease.
52
Do fibrous foods have a fibrous texture?
Not necessarily.
53
How are proteins fibrous but not?
There fibers consist of fully digestible proteins and are not dietary fiber.
54
Is cocoa powder a source of fiber?
Yes
55
White flour contains mostly what?
Starch
56
Does bread flour, considered lower in starch than regular flour, contain mostly starch?
Yes
57
Are some starch granules damaged during the milling process? How does relate to amylase and fermentation?
Yes, they are also damage when stored under damp conditions. When this happens, starch can be broken down by the enzyme amylase into sugars that are readily fermented by yeast.
58
The amount of sugar naturally present in flour as a %?
Less than 0.5%.
59
Is the amount of naturally accruing sugar in flour enough for yeast fermentation?
Rarely, which is why most yeast dough formulas include at least some sugar or source of amylase.
60
Flour is made up mostly of what two things?
Starch and protein.
61
Starch makes up the bulk of flour. It's usually between what percentage?
68 to 76%
62
Chunks of proteins usually make up what % of flour?
6 to 18%
63
What acts as the cement that holds starch granules together in the endosperm?
Chunks of protein.
64
Glutenin and gliadin make up what % of protein in the endosperm?
80%
65
Besides protein and starch, what else is in flour?
14% moisture, 2% gums, 1% lipids and 0.5% ash.
66
What other proteins (besides gluten in and gliadin) are found in white flour?
Enzymes such as amylase, protease and lipase.
67
Moisture in flour typically ranges in what %?
11 to 14%
68
What happens when moisture content in flour rises above 14%?
Flour is susceptible to fungus and mold growth, flavor changes, enzyme activity, and insect infestation.
69
How must flour be stored?
Covered in a cool, dry place.
70
Other carbohydrates in flour besides starch include what? What's their %?
Gums are between 2 and 3%, primarily pentosans.
71
Why are pentosans an important part of white flour?
They are present in relatively low levels but make a large contribution to water absorption; absorb 10x their weight in water. They also increase the viscosity or consistency or consistency of batters and doughs.
72
What happens if you have large amounts of pentosan?
They result in a lower volume of baked goods.
73
Is pentosan a good source of soluble fiber?
Yes
74
Percentage of lipids.
1 to 1.5%
75
Are lipids in flour important for proper gluten development?
Yes
76
Is stale flour dangerous?
No, it just has a distinct cardboard flavor.
77
What is ash composed of?
Inorganic matter--mineral salts--naturally present in wheat kernels.
78
Besides providing minerals, ash increases what? How?
Yeast fermentation by contributing minerals to yeast.
79
Does ash have a grey color that is carried over to flour?
Yes
80
What % of flour is ash?
Less than 0.6%
81
Where is ash concentrated?
The bran layer.
82
How is ash measured in white flour?
Burning flour and grain samples at a very high temp--over 1,000ºF (538ºC)--and weighing the remains.
83
What is present in white flour that gives it the creamy, off-white color?
Carotenoid pigments present in extremely low amounts (1-4 parts per million).
84
Is carotenoid in the same family as beta-carotene?
Yes, the orange pigment for carrots.
85
Bakers generally classify wheat by what?
The hardness of the kernel, that is, whether it feels hard or soft to the touch.
86
Hard whet kernels are high in what?
Protein
87
Soft wheat kernels are low in what?
Protein
88
As the amount of protein in flour increases, what happens to starch?
It decreases.
89
Why do hard wheat kernels feels harder than soft ones?
Protein in these kernels forms large, hard chunks that hold tightly to starch granules.
90
Are hard wheat kernels generally higher in carotenoids and water-grabbing pentosans?
Yes
91
Carotenoid pigments provide a creamy, off-white color to what?
Unbleached flour
92
What type of flour forms high-quality gluten?
Hard wheat flours.
93
Because they form strong gluten, hard wheat flours are considered what?
Strong flours.
94
What is said about strong flours water absorption mixing time to develop gluten?
They usually have a high water-absorption value and require a longer mixing time to fully develop, but they are tolerant of over-mixing.
95
Besides hardness of the kernel, how else can wheat be classified?
Its botanical species, the time of year it's planted or grown, or by the color of the kernel.
96
Six major classes of wheat in the US are described as what?
Hard red winter, soft red winter, hard red spring, hard white, soft white, and durum.
97
Except for durum (Triticum durum), most wheats milled in the North America are what?
Varieties of so-called common wheat (Triticum aestivum).
98
Can the quality of flour within any of the categories vary greatly? Explain.
Yes. In particular, geographic, climatic, and soil variation affect composition and quality of wheat.
99
Why do millers typically blend flours from different regions?
To provide consistent product year after year.
100
Do strong flours require more mixing to fully develop gluten?
Yes
101
Are flours milled from soft wheat kernels whiter and finer to the touch than hard wheat flour?
Yes
102
Strong flours are typically used for what?
Yeast-raised products, such as breads, rolls, croissants, and Danish.
103
Why do soft wheat flours tend to pack together when squeezed and don't flow or dust a bench easily?
Because they are so much finer than hard wheat.
104
Do soft wheat flours typically form weak gluten that tears easily?
Yes
105
Soft wheat flours are sometimes called what?
Weak flours
106
Weak flour is desirable for what?
Many cakes, cookies and pastries.
107
Can wheat and other cereal grains be milled into many different forms? Examples.
Yes, from very fine flour to cracked or whole kernels.
108
Do small, fine particles absorb water faster than larger ones?
Yes
109
Do whole cracked kernels and coarse meals and flakes often require soaking or gentle heating before use?
Yes, to allow for proper absorption and softening.
110
Why are larger kernels good for diabetics?
It takes the longer to be broken down by the body; easier to control blood glucose levels.
111
Flours by definition are what?
Grains milled to a relatively fine granulation size.
112
Do all flour have the same granulation? Example.
No, soft wheat flours are usually ground finer than hard wheat because the softness of their kernels allows it.
113
Are granular products coarser than flour?
Yes
114
Can granular products be whole grain?
Yes, like flour, if they are milled from the whole kernel, or not, if milled from the endosperm.
115
Two examples of granular wheat products.
Semolina and farina.
116
What is coarsely ground from the endosperm of hard red wheat, farina or semolina?
Farina
117
What is Cream of Wheat an example of?
Farina
118
Durum semolina is coarsely ground from what?
Endosperm of durum wheat.
119
Because durum semolina is yellow in cooler, it's often mistaken for what?
Cornmeal
120
Can grains be purchased as whole kernels? What are they generally called?
Yes, wheat berries.
121
What do whole kernels add to bread?
Contrasting crunchy texture and visual appeal.
122
Do millers often put small amounts of additives in flour?
Yes
123
Are the types and amounts of additives strictly regulated by the gov't?
Yes, by law, millers must label flour with the additives it contains.
124
Are some additives required by law?
Yes
125
Why is white flour enriched?
Bran and germ are removed from the endosperm during the milling process; several vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, protein and fat are removed. Enrichment replaces certain vitamins and minerals that were lost.
126
What is not given back during the enrichment process?
Dietary fiber in the bran, protein in the germ.
127
When did flour enrichment begin? What did it eliminate?
In the early 1940s after gov't surveys found that high incidence of disease was caused by certain vitamin and mineral deficiencies. This virtually eliminated two of these diseases, beriberi and pellagra.
128
Do the US and Canada periodically evaluate nutritional needs? What happened in 1990? Why?
Yes, and they found that folic acid needed to be added; Folic acid prevents certain birth defects, including spine bifida, and can reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.
129
What vitamins and minerals are added to white flour?
Iron and B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid) in amounts greater than or equal to whole wheat flour. Certain other vitamins and minerals are optional.
130
Essentially, are all baked goods and pasta products made from white flour in North America enriched?
Yes
131
Natural aging occurs when freshly milled green flour is exposed to what?
Air for several weeks.
132
Why does air do to flour?
First, it whitens flour. Second, it strengthens the gluten that forms from flour.
133
In naturally aging flour, what is added?
Air
134
The active ingredient in air is what?
Oxygen, which is considered an oxidizing agent.
135
How does oxygen change the color of flour?
Oxygen oxidizes the carotenoid pigment in flour, changing their chemical structure and whitening them.
136
How does oxygen strengthen gluten?
Maturing agents that strengthen gluten simulate natural aging; they oxidize portions of glutenin and gliadin molecules, altering them so that more bonds form when gluten forms.
137
Why are yeast doughs made with aged flour easier to handle than those made with green flour?
Doughs with stronger gluten are less sticky and less likely to tear when stretched.
138
What happens to the final product when bread is made with a stronger gluten?
It yields a finer crumb and more volume.
139
Disadvantages of natural aging.
First, it requires time, often several weeks or months; flour takes up valuable silo space and isn't paying the bills. Plus it's likely to support mold growth or become infested with insects. It's also inconsistent, and not as effective as many chemical bleaching and maturing agents.
140
Naturally aged flours are often labeled what?
Unbleached
141
What are maturing agents?
Additives that change the baking properties of flours.
142
Who adds maturing agents?
The miller or are found in many dough conditioners by the baker.
143
Do all maturing agents strengthen gluten?
No, some weaken it.
144
Why can the term "maturing agent" be confusing?
It is used to describe additives that have completely opposite functions.
145
Do potassium bromate and ascorbic acid strengthen or weaken gluten?
Strengthen
146
What amount of maturing agents are needed to get desired changes?
A small amount, only a few parts per million.
147
When potassium bromate is added to flour, it is said to be what?
Bromated
148
What's the standard against which all other maturing agents are judged?
Potassium bromate
149
How long has potassium bromate been around?
Since the early 1900s.
150
Why is potassium bromate no longer allowed as a flour additive in Canada and Europe? What's up with the US?
PB is considered a carcinogen because it has been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals. While still approved in the US, it's slowly diminishing, and much lower levels are added today than previously.
151
In California, what maturing agent must carry a warning label?
Potassium bromate
152
What's another name for ascorbic acid?
Vitamin C
153
Is ascorbic acid one of the most popular maturing agents?
It is becoming one because of potassium bromates decreased usage even though it's not as effective.
154
Do bleaching agents whiten carotenoids?
Yes
155
Name two common flour bleaching agents.
Benzoyl peroxide and chlorine gas.
156
Why is benzoyl peroxide used in all types of flour?
It's extremely effective at whitening and produces no maturing effects.
157
Benzoyl peroxide is commonly used in what types of flour?
bread, high-gluten, AP, cake and pastry flours that are bleached.
158
Chlorine is used in what flour?
Cake flour only.
159
Why is chlorine great with cake flour?
It improves baking properties of soft wheat flour by substantially weakening gluten and by allowing starch to absorb water more quickly and easily.
160
Can you always tell whether flour has been bleached on the label? What can't you tell?
Yes, but you can't necessarily tell what bleaching agent was used. Ask the manufacturer if you would like to know.
161
Explain why using maturing agents to strengthen gluten is a good thing - be detailed.
The more bonds there are, the stronger, drier, and more cohesive a dough. When gas expands during final proof and the oven spring, the stronger gluten stretches better without breaking. Loaf volume is higher and grain is less coarse.
162
Are many maturing agents more effective than natural aging?
Yes
163
For the most part, do maturing agents that strengthen also whiten flour?
No, they mostly don't.
164
Do potassium bromate and bromate replacers work at different times in baking? How does this affect commercial dough conditioners?
Yes, this is why commercial dough conditioners often contain a combination of maturing agents to strengthen dough throughout the process.
165
When does potassium bromate usually work?
During final proof and oven spring.
166
Do some maturing agents work during the mixing process?
Yes
167
When does ascorbic acid work?
Consistently throughout bread production, just not as effective as potassium bromate.
168
Does the source of amylase matter in baked bread?
The source of amylase--more specifically alpha-amylase--added by the miller makes a surprising difference in the quality of baked bread.
169
Why does the source of amylase matter in bread making?
Not all amylase is alike. Different amylase enzymes are inactivated at different oven temperatures. Since amylase can have its greatest activity on bread dough during baking, its heat stability is extremely important.
170
True or False: Since amylase can have its greatest activity on bread during baking, its heat stability is extremely important.
True
171
When is fungal amylase inactivated? When is this good? Does it help bread staling?
Typically before starch granules gelatinize, which is when the granules are most susceptible to action. If the only reason for amylase is to improve fermentation, it is acceptable, even desirable, for amylase to stop working early on. However, the enzyme will not have enough time to break down enough starch and slow bread staling.
172
When were early versions of bacterial amylase inactivated? Why would this be an issue?
Very late in baking, or sometimes not at all. With these enzymes, starch breakdown could be so extensive that bread became gummy.
173
When are newer versions of bacterial amylase inactivated? Do they make bread gummy and stale?
Temperatures that are intermediate to fungal amylase and early versions of bacterial amylase. They provide an appropriate breakdown that delays staling without gumminess.
174
Does chlorine, potassium bromate and ascorbic acid do different things to gluten? Explain.
Yes, chlorine weakens gluten while potassium bromate and ascorbic acid are maturing agents that strengthen it.
175
What does amylase do to starch in bread dough?
Breaks it down into sugar and other products.
176
Why is the breaking down of bread dough starch a good thing?
It creates food for yeast fermentation, increases browning, and slows staling.
177
During fermentation, amylase acts on available starch, primarily starch from _______ _________?
damaged granules
178
Does amylase activity increase or decrease during baking when starch granules gelatinize and become more susceptible to its action?
Increases
179
When does enzyme activity stop?
When amylase is inactivated by the heat.
180
Does white flour contain amylase?
Yes, but it's typically too low to be of much benefit.
181
How is the amylase deficient in white flour fixed?
The miller sometimes adds amylase to the flour in either bacterial or fungi form.
182
If amylase is not added by the miller, what list of ingredients can a baker add instead?
Malted flour, diastatic malt syrup, untoasted soy flour, or any number of dough conditioners that contain amylase.
183
Malted flours can be thought of as what?
Flours with active amylase activity.
184
Can any grain be malted?
Yes
185
Most common grain made into malted flour.
Barley
186
Malted barley flour is often referred to as what?
Malted flour or, more simply, malt.
187
Certain brands of flour are sold with added malted barley flour but what can you do if it's not added?
Purchase dry malt flour separately and add it to yeast dough at around 0.25 - 0.50 percent (baker's percentage).
188
Malt syrups are also called what?
Malt extract.
189
Can malted wheat and malted rye flours be used as well?
Yes
190
How are malted wheat and malted rye flours different from malted barley?
Flavor and enzyme activity.
191
Can dried malt syrups be used to increase amylase?
Yes
192
What is malting?
To malt means to sprout or germinate whole grain kernels under controlled conditions, as one might sprout beans or seeds.
193
Malted grains are used in ______ _________ as well as in baking.
Beer making
194
Three main steps for malting grains for flour.
Steeping, germination, and drying.
195
How are grains steeped, germinated and dried? Explain the process.
They're gently stirred in a tank of cool water, After gaining close to half their weight in water, the swollen kernels are transferred to a flat bed to germinate. Germinating kernels produce a mix of enzymes, including proteases, which break down proteins, as well as amylase. After about 4 or 5 days germinating in a cool, humid environment, sprouted kernels are transferred to an oven and gently dried to their original moisture (less than 14%). This stop germination but leaves the active enzymes intact. The final step is to grind the dried malted kernels into flour.
196
*Malt powder comes in forms, what are they?
Diastatic and nondiastatic.
197
What is diastatic malt?
Diastatic malt contains enzymes that break down starch into sugar; this is the form bakers add to bread dough to help the dough rise and create a good crust.
198
What is nondiastatic malt?
Nondiastatic malt has no active enzymes and is used primarily for flavor, mostly in beverages. It sometimes contains sugar, coloring agents, and other additives.
199
Dough conditioners are also called what?
Dough improvers.
200
What do dough conditioners look like?
They are off-white, dry, granular products that look similar to flour.
201
Dough conditioners are used in the production of what products?
Yeast-raised products.
202
Why do dough conditioners perform many functions?
They are a mix of ingredients.
203
When are dough conditioners particularly useful?
When good gluten development is necessary for high volume and a fine crumb, especially when flour quality is poor or dough undergoes rigorous conditions.
204
What would qualify as rigorous conditions for dough?
Large-scale bakery operations have dough that gets rough-handled in automated equipment. Freezing could also damage gluten structure because of ice crystals.
205
Bakeries often rely on dough conditioners to reduce and eliminate what?
Reduce mixing and eliminate bulk fermentation.
206
While many brands of dough conditioners are available, most contain a mixture of the following ingredients.
Emulsifiers, such as DATEM and calcium stearoyl-2-lactate; salts and acids, such as calcium carbonate or mono calcium phosphate; maturing agents that strengthen such as potassium bromate, ascorbic acid, potassium iodate, and azodicarbonamide (ADA); yeast foods, such as ammonium salts; enzymes, such as amylase; reducing agents, such as L-cystein.
207
What does DATEM stand for?
Diacetyl tartaric acid esters of mono-and diglycerides.
208
What do DATEM and stearoyl-2-lactylate accomplish?
These emulsifiers increases water absorption and gluten strength.
209
What do salts and acids do for dough?
Optimize gluten development by adjusting water hardness and pH.
210
What does calcium carbonate do for dough?
Increases both water hardness and pH.
211
What does monocalcium phosphate do for dough?
Increases water hardness while decreasing pH.
212
Monocalcium phosphate, an acid salt, is also present in many _____ ________.
baking powders
213
What do ammonium salt provide for dough?
Improve yeast fermentation.
214
What does amylase provide for dough?
Improved yeast fermentation, browning and prevent staling.
215
What do reducing agents, such as L-cystein, do for dough?
They break or block bonds in gluten; increase the extensibility and reduce strength of doughs--the opposite of maturing agents.
216
How can pizza dough benefit from L-cysteine?
L-cysteine helps it stretch and handle easily, and doesn't shrink.
217
What happens if you use too much of the dough conditioner?
Too much of a good thing yields poor texture and volume--and can be illegal. The US and Canada regulate many of the additives present in dough conditioners.
218
What is vital wheat gluten?
A dry powder that contains high amounts, about 75%, of protein that is vital, that is, protein that forms gluten when mixed with water.
219
What does vital wheat gluten look like?
It is purchased as a creamy yellow powder.
220
What is VWG added to? Why?
Yeast-raised doughs to improve flour quality, to increase mixing and fermentation tolerances, for a finer crumb, and improving volume.
221
What else is needed in the addition of VWG to a formula? What does it accomplish?
An increase in water for full hydration. This additional water and the higher volume achieved with added gluten can extend shelf life by keeping the bread softer longer.
222
What happens if you add too much VWG?
Too much gluten can make a product tough and chewy.
223
What is the whitest part of a kernel?
Endosperm, part that's used for white flour and contains all the gluten forming proteins. No wonder that commercial grades of white flour are defined by how much is pure endosperm.
224
Flour that's very high in endosperm much be milled very carefully which makes it what?
Very expensive.
225
Why are high-endosperm flours so white?
They are relatively low in bran and germ impurities.
226
Flour milling has two main objectives.
First, it is a process that separates the endosperm from bran and germ. Second, it involves grinding the grain to fine flour.
227
Ideally, does milling try to separate as much endosperm as possible without damaging starch granules?
Yes, but this is difficult to do.
228
Commercial milling operations only extract how much flour for every hundred pounds?
72lbs on average, even though the endosperm makes up 85% of the wheat kernel.
229
How flour is milled. First step.
First, milling operation cleans kernels, to remove dirt, weed seeds, stones and other debris.
230
How flour is milled. 2nd step.
Second, they temper the kernels by adjusting moisture content. Tempering toughens the bran and makes the germ more pliable, so the endosperm is easily separated from the bran and germ.
231
How flour is milled. 3rd step.
Third, they break or crush the kernels between corrugated rollers, loosening chunks of endosperm from the bran and germ.
232
How flour is milled. 4th step.
They separate, or purify the endosperm from the bran and the germ, using sieves and air currents. The resulting farina-size endosperm chunks are called middlings.
233
How flour is milled. 5th step.
Grinds the endosperm middlings into flour between a series of smooth, reduction rollers.
234
How many times are the last three operations of milling repeated? Why?
Several times to produce streams of flour in which each progressive stream contains less endosperm and more bran and germ impurities than the last.
235
What happens after the last three steps of milling are repeated several times?
The streams are selectively combined and sifted to produce commercial grades of flour. The flour is then naturally aged or treated with bleaching and maturing agents.
236
So-called "high quality" flours (high in endosperm) are lacking in what?
Nutrients
237
Traditional way for manufacturers to confirm the grade of flour?
Measure the ash since wheat bran is naturally high in it.
238
Is ash content also affected by wheat variety and soil conditions?
Yes, but ash still provides some indication of the amount of bran in the flour and, therefore, the flours commercial grade.
239
What is patent flour?
The highest quality of all commercial grades of white flour.
240
Are most bread, pastry and cakes flours today patent grade?
Yes
241
How is patent flour made? Is it the lowest in ash?
By combining the first few streams of flour from the milling process. It consists of the inner most part of the endosperm and is essentially bran and germ free. This makes it the lowest in ash and whitest in color.
242
Are there different grades of patent flour? Why?
Yes, depending on which streams of flour milling process are blended.
243
The highest-quality patent flour is called what?
Extra short or fancy patent.
244
What is clear flour?
The lowest quality of all commercial grades of flour.
245
Where is clear flour milled from?
The outer part of the endosperm, made from flour streams that remain after patent flour is produced.
246
Are there different grades of clear flour? Are they high in bran? Color?
While different grades are available, all clear flours are relatively high in bran, high in protein and ash, and slightly gray in color.
247
What's a high grade of clear flour called?
First clear.
248
Most clear flour sold to bakers is what? Protein content?
First clear from hard wheat flour and typically has a protein content of 13-15%
249
Is clear flour less expensive than patent flour?
Yes
250
Gluten quality in clear vs patent flour.
While it is higher in total protein than patent flour, the gluten formed from clear flour if typically of lesser quality than that from patent flour.
251
First clear is commonly added to what? Why?
Rye and whole grain breads. Its protein adds much needed strength to low-gluten grains, while its slightly gray cast is hidden by the dark color of rye or whole grain.
252
Lower, darker grades of clear flour are used for what?
Vital wheat gluten.
253
How did patent flour get its name?
Traditional gristmills of the mid 1800s had difficulty milling the hard kernels of Midwestern and Canadian spring wheat. Eventually, a Frenchman name LaCroix developed a purifier, which improved the yield and quality of white flour, that hard spring wheat was more easily milled into white flour. In 1856 the US patent office granted a patent for the purifier. This was followed by hundreds more patents for refining white flour. These new patented processes--used in the mills of Minnesota--revolutionized the milling industry. Consumer demand rose both in America and Europe, and the center of the milling industry moved from Eastern cities to the upper Midwest, which became an internationally renowned center of milling. Today, the term patent flour still refers to highly purified white flour.
254
What is straight flour milled from?
The entire endosperm.
255
How is straight flour made?
Combining all usable streams of flour from the milling process and contains bran and germ particles that are not easily separated from the endosperm.
256
Do Americans use straight flour?
Not commonly used in North America but French bakers use a type of it in breads.
257
Most flours purchased by bakers are what type of flour?
Patent flour
258
Are there many different types of patent wheat flours? Why?
Yes, some of these differences are due to the type of wheat being used, others occur because of differences in milling practices or additives.
259
Bread flour is milled from what?
Either hard red spring or hard red winter wheat.
260
Is bread flour high in protein? How much?
Yes, typically 11.5 - 13.5% protein.
261
What is high protein essential for in bread?
High volume and fine crumb in yeast-raised baked goods.
262
Why is it more difficult to bring bread flour?
Because it's from hard wheat kernels.
263
Why is bread flour coarser in texture than pastry flour and contain a higher percentage of broken and fragmented starch granules?
Because it is from hard wheat kernels.
264
What absorbs more water, damaged starch granules or intact granules?
Damaged, which is generally considered desirable in bread making.
265
Damaged granules are more susceptible than intact ones to breakdown by amylase. Why is this good for yeast?
This makes more sugar available to yeast for fermentation into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.
266
Can bread flour be purchased bleached or unbleached?
Yes
267
Does bread flour sometimes contain added malted barley flour? Why?
Yes, to provide for better yeast fermentation, dough handling, and shelf life.
268
Bread flour is typically used for what?
Pan breads, rolls, croissants and sweet yeast doughs.
269
High gluten flour is milled from what?
Hard wheat, generally hard spring wheat.
270
How much protein is in high gluten flour?
13.5 - 14.5% protein
271
HGF typically has what added for even stronger gluten?
Potassium bromate or a bromate replacer.
272
Why do HGF require a high amount of water to form acceptable dough?
Because of their high protein content and the high degree of damaged starch granules during milling.
273
Like bread flour, is HGF sometimes bleached and contain added malted flour?
Yes
274
HGF is almost exclusively used for what?
Yeast-raised baked goods, particularly those requiring maximum strength and structure.
275
Use HGF for what?
Bagels, hearth breads, thin crust pizzas and hard rolls.
276
Do not confuse HGF with what?
Vital wheat gluten, which looks like flour but is best thought of as a flour additive.
277
Why shouldn't you overuse HGF?
Product will become to tough and chewy.
278
Artisan bread flour is milled from what?
Hard red winter wheat, resembles French flour in its characteristics.
279
Artisan bread flour protein %.
11.5 - 12.5%
280
What does the lower protein content of Artisan bread flour provide?
A crisper crust and a crumb with desirable irregular holes.
281
Despite having low protein, why must the protein in Artisan bread flour be high?
High-quality protein forms gluten with a good balance between strength and extensibility. If gluten is poor, it tears as dough is stretched, and the dough collapses from the rigors of a long fermentation.
282
Does Artisan bread flour have higher ash content than patent flour?
Yes
283
Higher ash content is thought to improve what?
Yeast fermentation and flavor.
284
Artisan bread flours typically don't contain bleaching or maturing agents and are more likely than other flours to be ________.
Organic
285
Pastry flour is milled from what?
Soft wheat, generally soft red winter wheat, but it can be milled from soft white wheat, as well.
286
How much protein is typically in pastry flour?
7 - 9.5%
287
Is pastry flour usually bleached?
No
288
Why does pastry flour have a low capacity to absorb water?
It's typically low in protein, water grabbing pentosans, and damaged starched granules.
289
What are pentosans?
Polysaccharides of five‐carbon sugars (pentoses). Widely distributed in plants, e.g. fruit, wood, corncobs, oat hulls. Not digested in the body, and hence a component of non‐starch polysaccharides and dietary fiber.
290
Do batters and doughs made with pastry flour remain relatively soft and fluid in the early stages of baking?
Yes
291
Why is having a batter or dough thats soft and fluid good for cookie dough and cake?
Helps cookies spread further and cakes to rise higher than with a stronger flour.
292
Cake flour is milled from what?
Soft wheat, generally from soft red winter wheat.
293
Cake flour is short or fancy patent flour. What does this mean? What does it give the flour?
Meaning that it comes from the absolute heart of the endosperm. This gives cake flour a finer granulation, whiter color, lower protein and slightly higher starch content.
294
How much protein is in cake flour?
6 - 8%
295
Cake flour is typically bleached with what? What do these chemicals do?
Both chlorine and benzoyl peroxide, yielding a stark white color and distinctly changed flavor.
296
Because of the chlorine cake flour is sometimes called what?
Chlorinated or high-ratio flour.
297
Recall: Is chlorine a maturing agent? Why?
Yes, it weekends gluten and increases the ability of starch to absorb water.
298
What happens to cookie dough made from cake flour instead of pastry flour?
It's stiff and dry, and the lack of free water prevents much, if any, spread during baking.
299
Are cookies made from cake flour smaller or bigger than those made with pastry flour? What about browning and texture?
Smaller, they also brown very little and have a cake like texture.
300
What happens if bread is made with pastry flour? Explain.
It will not look or taste like the same bread made from bread flour. First, dough will be softer, even though less water is required is required in the mixing. It will readily bake and tear and be over mixed. Once bread is baked, it will have a lower volume. The crust will not brown as readily, and the crumb will be whiter. Air cells in the crumb will tend to be larger and more irregular. Expect a different flavor, and if the bread is stored for several days, it will become stale faster.
301
Many of the differences between bread made with pastry flour vs bread flour are due to what?
Lower amount of high quality protein in pastry flour compared with bread flour.
302
The importance of _______ on the properties of cake flour cannot be overstressed. It is as much , if not more, the __________ treatment as the low protein content that defines cake flour.
chlorine
303
Is chlorination of flour allowed in European Union?
No
304
Some promising alternative treatments to chlorination include what?
Use of heat, enzymes, and additives, such as anthem gum.
305
AP flour is not always used be professional pastry chefs. However, it is sold in the foodservice industry as what?
H&R flour (hotel and restaurant)
306
AP flour typically is what % protein?
9.5 - 11.5% but can vary with the brand.
307
AP flour is often made from a blend of what?
Hard and soft wheat, but this is not always the case.
308
What type of flour is King Arthur flour made from?
Entirely hard wheat.
309
White Lily flour is made from what?
Entirely from soft wheat.
310
Does AP flour come bleached and unbleached?
Yes
311
What does AP flour usually contain vitamins or malted barley flour?
Yes, it typically is enriched with vitamins and minerals, and may contain added malted barley flour.
312
Can many cakes be made successfully with pastry flour or bread flour? What's the exception?
Light, sweet, moist, and tender high-ratio cakes cannot. High-ratio cakes are made from formulas that contain a high ratio of liquid and sugar to flour. Without cake flour, these cakes would not rise, or more likely they would rise and then collapse during baking and cooling.
313
Why do high-ratio cakes rise and collapse during baking and cooling without cake flour?
Recall that chlorine modifies the starch in flour, so that flour absorbs more water than it otherwise would. This makes for thicker cake batters, even when large amounts of water and sugar are added. Thick batters are good at holding tiny air bubbles, for a light texture, high volume, and fine crumb. Recall, too, that starch is a structure builder. With so much water and sugar in high-ratio cakes batters, and with weakened flute, chlorine-treated starch becomes essential for keeping the cake from collapsing in the oven, so cake volume stays high and light.
314
What if a formula calls for AP flour? Substitute?
Not all professional bakeshops stock AP flour. The standard substitute is a blend of bread and cake flour, usually a 60:40 blend. Yet this is not generally the best substitute.
315
If a formula calls for AP flour in a yeast-raised product and you have none. Explain.
Bread flour is the best choice. Additional water will be needed to form the dough, and longer mixing will be needed to develop the gluten. The dough will handle more easily, the bread will be higher than if it was made from AP flour, and it will have a finer crumb.
316
If a formula calls for AP flour in a fine textured, high-ratio cake product and you have none. Explain.
Cake flour instead of AP flour. For most other cakes, such as ginger bread or carrot cake, and for all other products, including pastries and cookies, use pastry flour.
317
Whole wheat flour is sometimes called what?
Graham or entire wheat flour in North America and wholemeal flour in Great Britain and other countries.
318
Is whole wheat flour a whole grain product? Why?
Yes, because it contains all three parts of the kernel - bran, endosperm and germ - in the same proportion as they occurred in the original kernel.
319
Why does whole wheat flour have a shorter shelf life than white flour?
Because the bran and germ are high in oil, an oil which easily oxidizes to produce rancid, off flavors.
320
Does whole wheat flour come in different granulations?
Yes, from coarse to fine. This is true of stone-ground and milled flour.
321
Why do coarse flours not form gluten as readily as fine flours? Does it affect density?
They absorb water more slowly. This is why coarse grained flours usually result in dense baked goods.
322
Are coarse flours absorbed and digested slower than fine grain? Does it help blood glucose?
Yes, it helps control blood glucose levels.
323
Is a common misconception that graham flour is either coarser or finer than whole wheat flour?
Yes
324
Who created graham crackers? When?
Reverend Sylvester Graham in 1829
325
What flour did Reverend Graham first use for his crackers?
Coarsely ground whole wheat flour.
326
In both US and Canada today, are there any regulations that differentiate graham flour from whole wheat flour based on a particular size?
No
327
Whole wheat flour is typically milled from what?
Hard red wheat
328
Whole wheat pastry flour is usually milled from what?
Soft red wheat
329
If milled from the same wheat, what has a higher protein content?
Whole wheat flour has more than white flour.
330
% of protein in whole wheat flour.
Typically 11-14% or more.
331
Reasons whole wheat flour has a higher protein content but will not form as much gluten as white flour.
- Sharp bran particles in whole wheat flour literally cut through gluten strands as they form.
- Bran is high in pentosan gums, which interfere with gluten formation.
- Much of the protein in whole wheat flour is from the bran and the germ, which do not form gluten.
- Wheat germ contains a protein fragment (glutathione) that interferes with gluten development.
332
Who made the first stone ground flour? How?
Early man by crushing and grinding between stones. It eventually evolved to stone, or grist, mills.
333
What is a gristmill?
Consists of two rotating circular granite millstones that rub or crush the grain that is sandwiched between the two stones.
334
Before roller mills revolutionized the milling industry in the late 1800s, how many neighboring gristmills were there across the United States?
22,000 mostly run by windmills or water wheels.
335
Today, stone grinding is mainly used for what?
Whole grain flours and meals rather than white flour.
336
Stone-ground flour is usually characterized by what?
An even distribution of germ oil throughout the flour, and often by small bran particles.
337
When bran particles are small what does it mean for nutrition?
Protein and other nutrients are more readily available for digestion. This is why stone-ground flour manufacturers sometimes advertise digestibility and higher nutritional value.
338
What is the benefit of old gristmills on flour?
They grind slowly, creating very little friction that would kill active enzymes or cause oil to oxidize.
339
Why is the presence of enzymes a mixed blessing in flour?
While low heat of gristmills might not oxidize the wheat germ oils, enzymes can. This is probably why stone-ground flours have a short shelf life, and probably have a stronger flavor than roller-milled flour.
340
What are roller-mills used for?
Primary means for milling flour today.
341
When were roller-mills invented?
In Europe as early as the 1500s but did not have widespread use in North America until the late 1800s.
342
Roller mills consist of what? How are they different from gristmills?
A sequence of paired iron rollers, either grooved or smooth, that rotate inwards. Because one roller is set to spin faster than the other, the grains caught in the middle are twisted and chopped. This flattens the bran into large flakes and breaks the endosperm into large chunks. This is different the the rubbing and crushing in gristmills.
343
How is whole wheat flour from roller-mills usually made?
By recombining the endosperm, bran, and germ in the proportions that they were present in the original kernel.
344
Using roller-mills increases shelf life of whole wheat flour. Why?
Because the germ is flattened in this process and not rubbed throughout the flour, its valuable oils remain in the germ.This is said to minimize oxidation of oils in the flour. It is also likely that the higher heat of a roller-mill destroys lipase enzymes, which helps prevent off flavors and helps extend shelf-life.
345
Are baked goods made with 100% whole wheat flour darker and stronger in flavor than white flour?
Yes, but also less cohesive and resilient.
346
Whole white wheat flour is made from what?
Soft or hard wheat, two new classes of wheat grown in North America.
347
Why did farmers begin growing more white wheat?
To satisfy the Asian market, where white wheat is preferred to red wheat flour in noodle making.
348
Is wheat flour the same as whole wheat flour?
No
349
What's the difference between wheat flour and whole wheat flour?
Whole wheat flour is a whole grain, milled from the whole wheat kernel. Wheat flour is another name for white flour, milled from the endosperm.
350
Why is wheat flour given its name?
To distinguish it from rye flour, corn flour, oat flour, or rice flour. A helpful distinction for those with wheat allergies.
351
Does wheat flour contain all the health benefits of whole wheat flour?
No, this is a common misnomer.
352
Is wheat bread the same as 100% whole wheat bread? Why?
No, wheat bread typically has white flour as its main ingredient. While it contains some whole, it often contains caramel color or molasses, for the darker look of 100% whole wheat bread.
353
What is semolina flour?
Durum wheat is commonly sold either as finely ground flour, called durum flour, or as coarser granular product, called durum semolina or simply semolina.
354
How big are semolina particles?
About the same size as farina.
355
What color is whole white wheat flour?
Golden, not white.
356
Describe the taste of whole white wheat flour. Why is this good for some customers?
Has a sweeter, milder taste than whole wheat flour made from red wheats. This makes it more acceptable to consumers who prefer lighter, milder-tasting breads and pastries.
357
Is whole white wheat flour high in dietary fiber like whole wheat flour?
Yes, it is a whole grain after all.
358
Is whole white wheat flour being used in many breakfast cereals and baked goods?
Yes
359
hat is durum made from?
The endosperm of durum wheat.
360
Is durum wheat the same as common wheat? Why?
No, durum has a very hard kernel. Harder than so called hard wheat kernels and is very high in protein (12-15%).
361
Why is durum so hard to reduce to a flour?
Because it's extremely hard, which means reducing it to a flour causes a high concentration of damaged starch granules.
362
What provides the desirable yellow color in durum?
Yellow carotenoid pigments, which provide a desirable golden color to pasta products.
363
What are two main bakeshop ingredients that contribute to the toughening or structure building in baked goods?
Flour and eggs.
364
Besides structure in baked goods, flour provides ________ to pastry creams and certain pie fillings.
thickening
365
What is responsible for much of the structure-building properties in flour?
Gluten and starch.
366
Gluten if formed from how many proteins in flour?
Two
367
Does pentosan gum also contribute to flour structure?
Yes. Gums appear to form their own structure or to interact with gluten.
368
Which of these structure builders--gluten, starch, or gums--is most important to a particular baked product depends on what?
The type of flour and formula used.
369
Main structure builder when using cake flour. Explain.
Little, if any, gluten forms from cake flour or from non wheat flours, Instead, starch, or starch and gums, becomes the main structure builder.
370
What is the main structure builder in products low in moisture, such as pie crusts and crisp cookies? Why?
They inevitably rely on gluten alone for structure, because starch gelatinization cannot occur in the absence of sufficient water.
371
Even with flours that contain gluten, is gluten necessarily the only, or most important, structure builder? Explain using yeast-raised baked goods.
No. Gluten is certainly the most important for developing unbaked dough, but starch is arguably more important to the final structure of the baked product.
372
Ingredients such as flour that absorb liquids are also called what?
Driers
373
hree main components in flour that absorb moisture and oil, helping bind ingredients together.
Starches, proteins and gums.
374
Are the same components that form structure also driers? What's the difference?
Yes, but all proteins in flour (not just glutenin and gliadin) absorb moisture, while only gluten in and gliadin form structure.
375
Is the absorption value of flour an important quality factor in bread baking?
Yes
376
Why are high absorption values desirable in bread baking?
Added moisture slows staling and means less flour needs to be used (most cost effective).
377
Water absorption in most bread ranges around what?
50 to 65%, meaning that 1 pound (450g) of flour absorbs over 0.5 pound (225g) of water.
378
Do many factors influence water absorption?
Yes, but flours that absorb more water typically have higher protein content.
379
What flours have a relatively mild, slightly nutty flavor?
Wheat flours but each has a different flavor.
380
Should you expect clear flour, with its higher protein and ash content, to have a stronger flavor than patent flour?
Yes
381
What has the strongest flavor of all the flours?
Whole wheat flour
382
Color of whole wheat flour.
Nut-brown color from pigments in the bran.
383
Color of whole white wheat flour.
Golden color.
384
Color of durum.
Pale yellow color.
385
Color of unbleached white flour.
Color of unbleached white flour. Creamy color.
386
Color of cake flour.
Stark white color.
387
By estimate, almost half the water in bread dough is held by ________, about one-third by _______ and close to one-quarter by small amount of ______ in white flour.
Starch, proteins, gums
388
Why does starch absorb so much of the water in doughs?
Because there's so much starch in flour.
389
Best way to predict which of two wheat flours will absorb more moisture.
Comparing the amount of protein in each.
390
Proteins absorb how much water compared to their weight?
One to two times.
391
Starch granules absorb how much water compared to their weight?
One-quarter to one-half their weight in water.
392
Does a small increases in protein have a noticeable increase in the amount of water absorbed in doughs?
Yes
393
Which of these flours absorb the most liquid: High-gluten, pastry and bread flour.
High-gluten absorbs the most, then bread flour and pastry flour.
394
Besides protein absorbing water, high-protein flours (being from hard wheat) also absorb more moisture for another reason. What is it?
They contain more damaged starch granules.
395
Damaged starch granules take up how much more water than intact ones?
Three to four times as much.
396
Predicting water absorption from protein values works as long as what? Why?
The wheat flour is not bleached with chlorine since they change starch to absorb more water.
397
Why does cake flour absorb as much water as it does?
Treated with chlorine and milled very fine.
398
Do higher protein flours typically undergo more Maillard browning than lower protein flours?
Yes
399
The protein in wheat is low in what essential amino acid? How does it compare to eggs or milk?
Lysine, which means it's not as nutritionally complete as eggs or milk.
400
Is white flour a good source of fiber?
No
401
Do all flours have a limited shelf life?
Yes, even white flour.
402
Millers recommend flours be stored for how long?
No more than 6 months.
403
Main changes that occur in stored flour.
Oxidation of the oils when flour is exposed to air.
404
Why does white flour have a shelf life?
While whole wheat flour and wheat germ are most likely to oxidize because of their high oil content, even the small amount of oil present in white flour (about 1%) eventually causes changes to flavor.
405
Best way to avoid rancid aged flour problems?
Follow FIFO rules. First in, first out - and do not add new flour to old. Store in a cool, dry area. This prevents flour from absorbing moisture and odors and from attracting insects and rodents. Wheat germ (and whole wheat flour) is generally stored under refrigeration if not used within a few months.
406
What is celiac disease?
A disease of the intestinal tract brought about by the consumption of gluten (more specifically, the gliadin in gluten).
407
What happens to the intestines of celiac patients?
When gluten is consumed, even in very small amounts, the body reacts by damaging the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed by the body. This causes the patient to be malnourished and develop a number of symptoms related to intestinal distress or to poor nutrition.
408
Is celiac genetic?
Yes
409
People with celiac's cannot consume what?
Wheat, rye, barely, and oats may be a problem.
410
Most common genetic disease in Europe.
Celiac
411
How many Italians have celiac?
1 out of every 250.
