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chapter 6 Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the two parts of the cell cycle

A

interphase and mitotic phase

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2
Q

what are the three stages to interphase

A

G1 - proteins are made, cell gets bigger and organelles replicate
S - DNA is replicated (in nucleus)
G2 - cell gets bigger, energy stores increase and DNA is checked for errors

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3
Q

what is the mitotic phase and its two stages

A

its where the cell divides
mitosis - division of the nucleus
cytokinesis - cytoplasm divides and cells divide

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4
Q

what is the G0 stage

A

ite where cells leave the cell cycle and go into a resting state

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5
Q

what are the reasons for cells leaving the cell cycle

A

differentation - they carry out their own jobs and are no longer able to divide
damage - the DNA may be damaged so no longer can be used

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6
Q

what are checkpoints in the cell cycle

A

they moniter and verify that the cells have gone through the stages correctly without fault

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7
Q

where are the different checkpoint in the cell cycle

A

G1 - G1 checkpoint makes sure the cell has grown, got its nutrients and has no DNA damage
G2 - G2 checkpoint makes sure the cell has grown, has no DNA damage and has replicated its DNA
spindle - the spindle fibre checkpoint checks whether the chromasomes has attached to the spindle fibres

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8
Q

what happens if the checpoint picks up something wrong about the cell

A

it goes into the resting state G0

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9
Q

what phase does cell replication happen in

A

interphase

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10
Q

whatsa a chromatid

A

during replication each DNA molecule is converted into two identical DNA molecules called chromatids

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11
Q

what are the four stages to mitosis

A

PMAT
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telephase

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12
Q

what happens in prophase

A

nuclear membrane starts to break down
chromatid condence making chromasomes
centrioles go to opposite poles
chromosomes are slowly moved to center of the cell

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13
Q

what happens in metaphase

A

where the chromosomes line up along the equator
its called the metaphase plate

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14
Q

what happens in anaphase

A

the pairs of chromatids divide
make V across the spindle fibres

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15
Q

what happens in telephase

A

chromatids have reached poles
nuclear envelope start to form around them
nucleus forms

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16
Q

cytokenisis in animals

A

pulls the membrane in
creates a cleavage furrow down the middle
two daughter cells made

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17
Q

cytokenisis in plants

A

no membrane so no furrow
vesicles from golgi appuratus line up down the middle where the metaphase plate was
cell wall starts to form
two daughter cells made

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18
Q

What does mitosis produce?

A

The nuclear division, producing two, genetically identical daughter cells = exact copy of the parents DNA and same number of chromosomes.

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19
Q

4 stages of meiosis 1

A

prophase 1
metaphase 1
anaphase 1
telophase 1

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20
Q

what happens in prophase one

A

chromosomes condense
nuclear envelope dissolves
nucleolus dissapears
spindle fibres form
homologous chromosomes pairs up
th chromatids could entangle in the transportation

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21
Q

what happens in metaphase 1

A

homologous chromosomes line up on the metabolic plate
orientation of the pairs are random
different assortment of chromosomes create genetic variation

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22
Q

what’s anaphase 1

A

homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles
some DNA sister chromatids which entangle with each other break off and rejoin
this means an exchange in DNA
which could result in genetic variation

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23
Q

what’s telophase 1

A

same as mitosis telophase
nuclear membrane forms around the chromosomes
cell undergoes cytokenisis

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24
Q

what’s prophase 2

A

spindle fibres form
chromosomes condense
nuclear envelope breaks down

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25
what's metaphase 2
individual chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate
26
what's anaphase 2
chromatids get pulled by spindle fibres attached to centromeres
27
what's telephase 2
chromatids assemble at poles and turn in to chromatins nuclear envelope forms then cytokinesis leads to the separation in 4 separate haploid cells
28
what's an erythrocyte (red blood cell)
biconcave disc to increase surface area transports oxygen in the body has haemoglobin flexible to squeeze through capillaries no nucleus so more room for haemoglobin
29
what's neutrophil
a white blood cell has a multi lobed nucleus to squeeze though small gaps to get to infections has a granular cytoplasm containing lysosomes that contain enzymes to attack pathogens
30
what's sperm cell
male gametes flagella help it to propel towards the female gamete digestive enzymes on the head help to break down the eggs layers has lots of mitochondria for energy
31
what's root hair cell
good SA:V ratio uptakes minerals and water from the soil
32
what's palisade cell
contains chloroplasts rectangle to pack together thin cell wall to increase rate of diffusion of carbon dioxide large vacuole to maintain turgor pressure
33
what's a guard cell
on surface of leaves CO2 enters through this no water they are flaccid and closed water they are turgid
34
what's squamous epithelium
flat and thin one cell thick rapid diffusion so is used in lining of the lungs which allows for rapid diffusion of O2 toblood
35
what's ciliated epithelium
cilia on surface lines trachea
36
what's cartilage
connective tissue elastin and collegan cartilage is firm and flexible so is perfect to prevent rubbing at end of the bones
37
what's muscle
it contacts so you can move heart cant beat
38
what's epidermis
single layer closely packed on the surface of plants covered by a waxy cuticle to reduce water loss stomata are in the epidermis which alows for CO2, water and oxgygen in and out
39
Chromosomes
Structures of condensed and coiled DNA in the form of chromatin.
40
Chromatids
Two identical copies of DNA held together at the centromere
41
Chromatin
Uncondensed DNA in a complex with histones
42
Meiosis
A form of cell division where the nucleus divides twice, resulting in half the number of chromosomes and producing 4 haploid cells from one diploid cell.
43
Gametes
Haploid sex cells produced by meiosis in organisms that reproduce sexually
44
Zygote
The initial diploid cell formed when 2 gametes are joined by the means of sexual reproduction
45
Haploid
Half the number of normal chromosome number; one chromosome of each type
46
Homologous chromosomes
Matching pair of chromosomes, one from each parent
47
Alleles
Different versions of the same gene
48
Genetic variation
A variety of different combinations of alleles in a population.
49
Crossing over
Sections of DNA which become entangled, breaks and re-joins during prophase 1 of meiosis = genetic variation
50
Independent assortment
The arrangement of each homologous chromosome pair in metaphase 1 and 2 of meiosis is independent of each other and results in genetic variation
51
Stem cell
Undifferentiated cells with the potential to differentiate into any of the specialised cell types of the organism
52
Potency
The ability to differentiate into different cell types
53
Totipotent
These can differentiate into any type of cell
54
Pluripotent
These can form all tissue types but not whole organisms
55
Multipotent
Only form a range of cells within a certain type of tissue
56
Sources of animal stem cells
Embryonic stem cells, tissue stem cells
57
Embryonic stem cells
Present at the very early stages of embryo development and are totipotent
58
Tissue stem cells
Present throughout life, from birth to death. Found in specific areas e.g. bone marrow. Multipotent. Can be harvested from the umbilical cord of new babies
59
Sources of plant stem cells
In meristematic tissue
60
Meristematic tissue
Found wherever the plant is growing e.g. root tips. Also between xylem and phloem.
61
Potential usage of stem cells in treatment for:
Heart disease, type 1 diabetes, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, muscular degeneration, birth defects, spinal injury
62
Current usage of stem cells in areas such as:
Burn treatment, drug trial, developmental biology
63
Ethics
Embryos - religious and moral judgement. murder.

biology (11 decks)

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