Chapter 6 - 7: Attitudes & Conformity Flashcards
(54 cards)
What is an attitude
To evaluate something or someone with favour or disfavour, shown in beliefs, feelings, or intended behaviour
e.g., a favourable attitude - feeling positively about recycling and believing it’s important for the environment
Subliminal Primes & Attitude Formation - Case Study, Crandall
Found that when unfamiliar (neutral) countries were paired with subliminal positive or negative faces:
- Participants liked the country more when paired with a positive face
- Participants liked it less when paired with negative face
e.g., if a neutral country was shown with a positive face, participants unconsciously rated it more favourably
What is the instrumental/operant conditioning of attitudes?
Behaviour that is rewarded strengthens the attitude, while behaviour that is punished weakens the attitude
e.g., if a child is rewarded for expressing positive views, they are more likely to repeat those views.
If they are punished for certain attitudes, they may avoid expressing them
What is modeling of attitudes?
When people, especially children, learn attitudes by observing others, such as their parents
e.g., children often adopt their parents’ attitudes by watching their behaviour, even more than by listening to what they say
Social Comparison and Attitudes - Festinger
Found that people look to others to validate their social reality and our attitudes are shaped by comparing ourselves to others
Results:
People often adjust their attitudes to match those of others, especially when uncertain about their own beliefs or behaviours
Norms and Attitudes - Maio
Found that when participants were given information about others’ ratings of fictitious immigrants (either positive or negative), it influenced their own attitudes
Results: positive norm information led to positive attitudes, while negative norm information led to negative attitudes
How do genetic factors influence attitudes?
Showing higher correlations in attitudes between MZ (identical) twins compared to DZ (fraternal) twins, even when separated at birth
Heritability of Attitudes - Case study, Olson
Found evidence that attitudes are heritable
Most Heritable:
- reading books
- playing organized sports
Least Heritable:
- playing bingo
- separate roles for men & women
e.g., some attitudes are more heritable than others, and traits like personality or physical characteristics may mediate this influence
Attitude-behaviour link - Wicker
Found that attitudes rarely predict people’s behaviour
e.g., even if someone has a positive attitude toward environmental conservation, they may not always engage in behaviours like recycling
Personality and behaviour - Mischel
Found that personality rarely predicts behaviour
e.g., a person may describe themselves as outgoing, but thy might act shy in certain situations
When do attitudes predict behaviour?
When the attitude is specific to the behaviour in question
e.g., a person’s attitude toward religion may not directly predict their actual church attendance, but their specific attitude toward going to church (e.g., “I enjoy attending church weekly”) is more likely to predict their actual attendance
Theory of Reasoned Action - Case Study, Fishbein & Ajzen
Suggests that attitudes, subjective norms (what others think), and intentions predict behaviour
e.g., if someone has a favourable attitude toward using condoms (attitude), believes important others think they should use them (subjective norm), and intends to use them (intention), they are more likely to actually use condoms (behaviour)
Persuasion Change Attitude: US Election - Case Study, Willer
Persuasion can change attitudes by influencing voters based on situational events like terror warnings or emotional appeals
e.g., the anniversary of 9/11 boosted George W. Bush’s support among likely voters, showing how emotional events can shape political attitudes
What is the yale approach (traditional) to persuasion?
Focuses on understanding who is delivering the message, what the message is, and to whom the message is being delivered, as well as the effect it has
e.g., In this model, “Who” refers to the source (A), “What” is the content of the message (B), and “To Whom” is the audience (C), all of which influence the effectiveness of persuasion
What are 5 source effects that make a communicator more persuasive?
- Expertise: We are more likely to be persuaded by experts
- Trustworthiness: People arguing for their self-interest can be seen as trustworthy
- Popularity: Influencers or popular figures can sway opinions
- Attractiveness: Attractive people tend to be more persuasive
- Rapid Speaking: Speaking quickly can make someone seem more knowledgeable and persuasive
What is the “sleeper effect” in persuasion?
When a message becomes more persuasive over time, even though people forget the source of the message
e.g., a person might hear fake news on social media and initially reject it. Later, they might forget the source and share the message with others, believing it to be true, even though they once doubted it
What are 3 key factors that make persuasive messages more effective?
- If people don’t feel manipulated, they are more likely to be persuaded
- Presenting both sides of an argument before leaning towards one is more convincing
- Fear can be used effectively in persuasion, as long as it’s not too overwhelming
Fear Appeals and Dental Habits - Case Study, Janis & Feshbach
Found that mild to moderate fear led to the most compliance with dental habits, while high fear (especially with personalized images) resulted to the least compliance
e.g.,
High fear - showing diseased mouths and stressing, “this can happen to you,” led to the least compliance
Mild and moderate fear - more effective in encouraging people to improve their dental habits
What are key factors for fear to be persuasive in attitude change?
If it doesn’t overwhelm the audience, they feel vulnerable, and they are informed about how to avoid the threat
e.g., saying “the world is on fire” is less persuasive than providing concrete steps to help, like “here are ways we can save the world”
Fear-based Persuasion - Meta-Analysis, Tannenbaum
Fear is more effective when:
1. Efficacy statements are included (providing coping strategies)
- High susceptibility and severity (the issue will affect the person)
- The solution is a one-time action rather than repeated actions
e.g., Fear works better for persuading people to take a one-time action like getting vaccinated for COVID-19 rather than asking for multiple behaviours
Distraction & Persuasion: Tuition Reduction - Case Study, Petty et al.
- When people are less distracted, strong arguments lead to more persuasion
- When people are more distracted, they are less persuaded by strong arguments
- When weak arguments are presented:
- Less distracted: people are least persuaded
- More distracted: people become more persuaded by weak arguments
e.g., distraction can make people more likely to accept weak arguments if they are not focused
Primary vs. Recency: Order of Trait Information - Case Study, Asch
- When participants heard positive traits first (intelligent, hardworking), followed by negative traits, they rated John more positively
- When participants heard negative traits first (envious, stubborn), followed by positive traits, they rated John less positively
Key concept: the order of information can influence how we form opinions. Traits presented first (primary) have a stronger impact on overall evaluations
Primacy vs. Recency Prediction: Message 1 & Message 2
Primacy prediction: if there is a time gap after the 2nd message, people tend to be more persuaded by the 1st message
Recency prediction: if there is a time gap before the second message, people tend to be more persuaded by the 2nd message (most recent)
Key concept: the timing of when the message are presented and the gap between them can affect which message is more persuasive
What is the “cognitive response analysis” in contemporary cognitive approaches to persuasion?
Examines what people think when exposed to persuasion and how those thoughts affect whether they are persuaded
Key concept: the effectiveness of persuasion depends on the cognitive reactions people have to the message (e.g., agreeing, disagreeing, or being distracted)
