chapter 7 Flashcards
(83 cards)
1
Q
bronch/o, bronchi/o
A
bronchial tube, bronchus
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Q
laryng/o
A
larynx, throat
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Q
nas/o
A
nose
4
Q
ox/i, ox/o, ox/y
A
oxygen
5
Q
pharyng/o
A
throat, pharynx
6
Q
phon/o
A
sound, voice
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Q
pleur/o
A
pleura, side of the body
8
Q
-pnea
A
breathing
9
Q
pneum/o, pneumon/o, pneu-
A
lung, air
9
Q
pulm/o, pulmon/o
A
lung
10
Q
sinus/o
A
sinus
11
Q
somn/o
A
sleep
12
Q
spir/o
A
to breathe
13
Q
thorac/o, -thorax
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chest, pleural cavity
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Q
trache/o, trachea
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windpipe, trachea
15
Q
The functions of the respiratory system are to:
A
Deliver air to the lungs.
Convey oxygen from the inhaled air to the blood for delivery to the body cells.
Expel the waste products (carbon dioxide and a small amount of water) returned to the lungs by the blood through exhalation.
Produce the airflow through the larynx that makes speech possible.
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Q
respiratory system
A
supplies the blood with oxygen for transportation to the cells in all parts of the body (Figure 7.1). Oxygen is vital to the survival and function of these cells. The respiratory system also removes carbon dioxide and some water waste from the body. For descriptive purposes, the respiratory system is divided into upper and lower respiratory tracts
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Q
upper respiratory tract
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consists of the nose (nostrils), mouth, pharynx, epiglottis, larynx, and trachea
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Q
lower respiratory tract
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consists of the bronchial tree and lungs
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Q
thoracic cavity
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or thorax, also known as the rib cage
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Q
The upper respiratory tract and the bronchial tree of the lower respiratory tract are sometimes referred to as the airway.
The Nose
Air enters the body through the nose and passes through the nasal cavity, which is the interior portion of the nose.
A
The nostrils are the external openings of the nose.
The nasal septum (NAY-zal SEP-tum) is a wall of cartilage that divides the nose into two equal sections. A septum is a wall that separates two chambers.
Cilia (SIL-ee-ah), the thin hairs located just inside the nostrils, filter incoming air to remove debris.
Mucous membranes (MYOU-kus) line the nose. These specialized tissues also line the digestive, reproductive, and urinary systems as well as other parts of the respiratory system.
Mucus (MYOU-kus) is a slippery secretion produced by the mucous membranes that protects and lubricates these tissues. In the nose, mucus helps moisten, warm, and filter the air as it enters. Notice that mucous and mucus have different spellings; however, they share the same pronunciation. Mucous is the name of the tissue (which comes first, both anatomically and alphabetically); mucus is the secretion that flows from the tissue.
The olfactory receptors (ol-FACK-toh-ree) are nerve endings that act as the receptors for the sense of smell. They are also important to the sense of taste. These receptors are located in the mucous membrane in the upper part of the nasal cavity.
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Q
tonsils and adenoids are part of the lymphatic system
A
They help protect the body from infection coming through the nose or the mouth. The tonsils, also called the palatine tonsils, are located at the back of the mouth. The adenoids, also called the nasopharyngeal tonsils, are higher up, behind the nose and the roof of the mouth
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Q
paranasal sinuses,
A
which are air-filled cavities lined with mucous membrane, are located in the bones of the skull (para- means near, nas means nose, and -al means pertaining to). A sinus can be a sac or cavity in any organ or tissue; however, the term sinus most commonly refers to the paranasal sinuses.
The functions of these sinuses are (1) to make the bones of the skull lighter, (2) to help produce sound by giving resonance to the voice, and (3) to produce mucus to provide lubrication for the tissues of the nasal cavity. The sinuses are connected to the nasal cavity via short ducts. The four pairs of paranasal sinuses are located on either side of the nose and are named for the bones in which they are located.
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Q
four pairs of paranasal sinuses
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The frontal sinuses are located in the frontal bone just above the eyebrows. An infection here can cause severe pain in this area.
The sphenoid sinuses, which are located in the sphenoid bone behind the eye and under the pituitary gland, are close to the optic nerves, and an infection here can damage vision.
The maxillary sinuses, which are the largest of the paranasal sinuses, are located in the maxillary bones under the eyes. An infection in these sinuses can cause pain in the posterior maxillary teeth.
The ethmoid sinuses, which are located in the ethmoid bones between the nose and the eyes, are irregularly shaped air cells that are separated from the orbital (eye) cavity by only a thin layer of bone.
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pharynx
which is commonly known as the throat, receives the air after it passes through the nose or mouth, as well as food. Its role in the digestive system is discussed in
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pharynx is made up of three divisions
The nasopharynx (nay-zoh-FAR-inks), which is the first division, is posterior to the nasal cavity and continues downward to behind the mouth (nas/o means nose, and -pharynx means throat). This portion of the pharynx is used only by the respiratory system for the transport of air and opens into the oropharynx.
The oropharynx (oh-roh-FAR-inks), which is the second division, is the portion that is visible when looking into the mouth (or/o means mouth, and -pharynx means throat). The oropharynx is shared by the respiratory and digestive systems and transports air, food, and fluids downward to the laryngopharynx.
The laryngopharynx (lah-ring-goh-FAR-inks), which is the third division, is also shared by both the respiratory and digestive systems (laryng/o means larynx, and -pharynx means throat). Air, food, and fluids continue downward to the openings of the esophagus and trachea where air enters the trachea and food and fluids flow into the esophagus. See the section “Protective Swallowing Mechanisms.”
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larynx
also known as the voice box, is a triangular chamber located between the pharynx and the trachea
The larynx is protected and supported by a series of nine separate cartilages. The thyroid cartilage is the largest, and when enlarged it projects from the front of the throat and is commonly known as the Adam's apple.
The larynx contains the vocal cords. During breathing, the cords are separated to let air pass. During speech, they close together, and sound is produced as air is expelled from the lungs, causing the cords to vibrate against each other.
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Protective Swallowing Mechanisms
The respiratory and digestive systems share part of the pharynx. During swallowing, there is the risk of a blocked airway or aspiration pneumonia caused by food or water going into the trachea and entering the lungs instead of going into the esophagus. Two protective mechanisms act automatically during swallowing to ensure that only air goes into the lungs:
The soft palate, which is the muscular posterior portion of the roof of the mouth, moves up and backward during swallowing to close off the nasopharynx. This prevents food or liquid from going up into the nose. Structures of the mouth are discussed further in Chapter 8.
At the same time, the epiglottis (ep-ih-GLOT-is), which is a lid-like structure located at the base of the tongue, swings downward and closes off the laryngo-pharynx so that food does not enter the trachea and the lungs.
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The Trachea
The role of the trachea (TRAY-kee-ah) is to transport air to and from the lungs. This tube, which is commonly known as the windpipe, is located directly in front of the esophagus.
The trachea is held open by a series of flexible C-shaped cartilage rings that make it possible for the trachea to compress so that food can pass down the esophagus
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bronchi
are two large tubes, also known as primary bronchi, which branch out from the trachea and convey air into the two lungs (singular, bronchus). Because of the similarity of these structures to an inverted tree, this is referred to as the bronchial tree
Within the lung, each primary bronchus divides and subdivides into increasingly smaller bronchioles (BRONG-kee-ohlz), which are the smallest branches of the bronchi.
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Alveoli
also known as air sacs, are the very small, grapelike clusters found at the end of each bronchiole (singular, alveolus, pronounced al-VEE-oh-lus). The alveoli are where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. Each lung contains millions of alveoli.
During respiration, the alveoli are filled with air from the bronchioles.
A network of microscopic pulmonary capillaries surrounds the alveoli. Pulmonary (PULL-mahnair-ee) means relating to or affecting the lungs.
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air inside the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries occurs through the thin, elastic walls of the alveoli.
The alveoli produce a detergent-like substance, known as a surfactant, which reduces the surface tension of the fluid in the lungs. This makes the alveoli more stable so they do not collapse when an individual exhales. Premature babies often lack adequate surfactant.
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lungs
which are the essential organs of respiration, are divided into lobes (Figure 7.5). A lobe is a subdivision or part of an organ.
The right lung is larger and has three lobes: the upper, middle, and lower (or superior, middle, and inferior).
The left lung has only two lobes, the upper and lower, due to space restrictions because the heart is located on that side of the body.
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mediastinum
is the middle section of the chest cavity and is located between the lungs. This cavity contains connective tissue and organs, including the heart and its veins and arteries, the esophagus, trachea, bronchi, the thymus gland, and lymph nodes
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pleura
is a thin, moist, and slippery membrane that covers the outer surface of the lungs and lines the inner surface of the thoracic cavity (Figure 7.6).
The parietal pleura (pah-RYE-eh-tal) is the outer layer of the pleura. It lines the walls of the thoracic cavity, covers the diaphragm, and forms the sac containing each lung. The parietal pleura is attached to the chest wall. Parietal means relating to the walls of a cavity.
The visceral pleura (VIS-er-al), which is the inner layer of pleura that covers each lung, is attached directly to the lungs. Visceral means relating to the internal organs.
The pleural cavity, also known as the pleural space, is the thin, fluid-filled space between the parietal and visceral pleural membranes. The fluid acts as a lubricant, allowing the membranes to slide easily over each other during respiration.
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diaphragm
also known as the thoracic diaphragm, is a dome-shaped sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdomen. It is the contraction and relaxation of this muscle that makes breathing possible.
The phrenic nerves (FREN-ick) stimulate the diaphragm and cause it to contract (Figure 7.7).
Note: The word diaphragm refers to a dividing structure, so the term is also used to describe a contraceptive device that separates the vagina from the cervix.
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Respiration
breathing, is the exchange of oxygen for carbon dioxide that is essential to life. A single respiration, or breath, consists of one inhalation and one exhalation (Figure 7.8). Ventilation is another word for moving air in and out of the lungs.
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Inhalation
is the act of taking in air as the diaphragm contracts and pulls downward (Figure 7.8 left). This action causes the thoracic cavity to expand. This produces a vacuum within the thoracic cavity that draws air into the lungs.
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External respiration
is the act of bringing air in and out of the lungs from the outside environment and, in the process, exchanging oxygen for carbon dioxide
As air is inhaled into the alveoli, oxygen immediately passes into the surrounding capillaries and is carried by the erythrocytes (red blood cells) to all body cells.
At the same time, the waste product carbon dioxide that has passed into the bloodstream is transported into the air spaces of the lungs to be exhaled.
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Exhalation
is the act of breathing out. As the diaphragm relaxes, it moves upward, causing the thoracic cavity to become narrower. This action forces air out of the lungs
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Internal respiration
which is also known as cellular respiration, is the exchange of gases within the cells of the blood and tissues
In this process, oxygen passes from the bloodstream into the cells.
The cells give off the waste product carbon dioxide, which passes into the bloodstream.
The bloodstream transports the carbon dioxide to the lungs, where it is expelled during exhalation.
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otolaryngologist
also known as an ENT (ear, nose, throat), is a physician with specialized training in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders of the head and neck (ot/o means ear, laryng/o means larynx, and -ologist means specialist).
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pulmonologist
is a physician who specializes in diagnosing and treating diseases and disorders of the respiratory system (pulmon means lung, and -ologist means specialist).
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thoracic surgeon
performs operations on the organs inside the thorax, or chest, including the heart, lungs, and esophagus.
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Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
is a group of lung diseases in which the bronchial airflow is obstructed, making it difficult to breathe out. COPD, which is most often caused by long-term smoking, is generally permanent and progressive. Most people with COPD suffer from two related conditions: chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
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Chronic bronchitis
is a disease in which the airways have become inflamed due to recurrent exposure to an inhaled irritant, usually cigarette smoke (bronch means bronchus, and -itis means inflammation). An increase in the number and size of mucus-producing cells results in excessive mucus production and thickening of the walls of the air passages. This causes chronic coughing, difficulty getting air in and out of the lungs, and increased risk of bacterial lung infections.
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Emphysema
is the progressive, long-term loss of lung function, usually due to smoking. Emphysema is characterized by a decrease in the total number of alveoli, enlargement of the remaining alveoli, and the progressive destruction of the walls of these remaining alveoli.
As the alveoli are destroyed, breathing becomes increasingly rapid, shallow, and difficult. In an effort to compensate for the loss of capacity, the lungs chronically overinflate, and the rib cage stays partially expanded all the time, resulting in a slightly rounded shape called a barrel chest.
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Asthma
is a chronic inflammatory disease of the bronchial tubes, often triggered by an allergic reaction. An asthma attack is characterized by episodes of severe breathing difficulty, coughing, and wheezing.
Wheezing is a breathing sound caused by a partially obstructed airway. The frequency and severity of asthma attacks are influenced by a variety of factors, including allergens, environmental agents, exercise, and infection.
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Airway inflammation
is the swelling and clogging of the bronchial tubes with mucus. This usually occurs after the airway has been exposed to inhaled allergens.
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bronchospasm
is a contraction of the smooth muscle in the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles, tightening and squeezing the airway shut (bronch/o means bronchi, and -spasm means involuntary contraction).
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Exercise-induced asthma
is the narrowing of the airways that develops after 5 to 15 minutes of physical exertion.
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Upper respiratory infections
and acute nasopharyngitis are among the terms used to describe the common cold. An upper respiratory infection can be caused by any one of 200 different viruses, the most common of which is the human rhinovirus.
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Allergic rhinitis
commonly referred to as an allergy, is an allergic reaction to airborne allergens that causes an increased flow of mucus (rhin means nose, and -itis means inflammation). Allergies are discussed in Chapter 6. Nonallergic rhinitis is an inflammation of the lining of the nose caused by something other than an allergen, such as cold air, spicy food, or medication.
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Croup
is an acute respiratory infection in children and infants characterized by obstruction of the larynx, hoarseness, and swelling around the vocal cords resulting in a barking cough and stridor. Stridor is a harsh, high-pitched sound caused by a blockage present when breathing in.
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Diphtheria
is an acute bacterial infection of the throat and upper respiratory tract. The diphtheria bacteria produce toxins that can damage the heart muscle and peripheral nerves. Through immunization, the disease is now largely prevented.
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Epistaxis
also known as a nosebleed, is bleeding from the nose that may be caused by dry air, injury, medication to prevent blood clotting, or high blood pressure.
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Influenza
also known as the flu, is an acute, highly contagious viral infection characterized by respiratory inflammation, fever, chills, and muscle pain. Influenza is spread by respiratory droplets and occurs most commonly in epidemics during the colder months. There are many strains of the influenza virus. Some strains can be prevented by annual immunization.
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Pertussis
also known as whooping cough, is a contagious bacterial infection of the upper respiratory tract that is characterized by recurrent bouts of a paroxysmal cough, followed by breathlessness and a noisy inspiration. Paroxysmal means sudden or spasmlike. Childhood immunization against diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus are given together (DPT); however, the incidence of pertussis is on the rise.
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Rhinorrhea
also known as a runny nose, is the watery flow of mucus from the nose (rhin/o means nose, and -rrhea means abnormal discharge)
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Sinusitis
is an inflammation of the sinuses (sinus means sinus, and -itis means inflammation).
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Pharyngitis
also known as a sore throat, is an inflammation of the pharynx (pharyng means pharynx, and -itis means inflammation). It is often a symptom of a cold, flu, or sinus infection. Pharyngitis caused by the bacteria Streptococcus is commonly referred to as strep throat
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laryngospasm
is the sudden spasmodic closure of the larynx (laryng/o means larynx, and -spasm means a sudden involuntary contraction). It is sometimes associated with gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD)
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Aphonia
is the loss of the ability of the larynx to produce normal speech sounds (a- means without, phon means sound or voice, and -ia means abnormal condition).
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Dysphonia
is difficulty in speaking, which may include any impairment in vocal quality, including hoarseness, weakness, or the cracking of a boy's voice during puberty (dys- means bad, phon means sound or voice, and -ia means abnormal condition).
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Laryngitis
is an inflammation of the larynx (laryng means larynx, and -itis means inflammation). This term is also commonly used to describe voice loss that is caused by this inflammation.
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Tracheorrhagia
is bleeding from the mucous membranes of the trachea (trache/o means trachea, and -rrhagia means bleeding).
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Bronchiectasis
is the permanent dilation of the bronchi, caused by chronic infection and inflammation (bronch/i means bronchus, and -ectasis means stretching or enlargement).
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Bronchorrhea
is an excessive discharge of mucus from the bronchi (bronch/o means bronchus, and -rrhea means abnormal flow). This is often caused by chronic bronchitis or asthma.
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Pleurisy
also known as pleuritis, is an inflammation of the pleura, the membranes that cover the lungs and line the pleural cavity. Pleurisy, which causes pleurodynia, may result from trauma, tuberculosis, connective tissue disease, or an infection (pleur means pleura, and -isy is a noun ending)
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Pleurodynia
is a sharp pain that occurs when the inflamed membranes rub against each other with each inhalation (pleur/o means pleura, and -dynia means pain).
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Pleural effusion
is the excess accumulation of fluid in the pleural space. This produces a feeling of breathlessness because it prevents the lung from fully expanding. Effusion is the escape of fluid from blood or lymphatic vessels into the tissues or into a body cavity (
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Pyothorax
also known as empyema of the pleural cavity, is the presence of pus in the pleural cavity between the layers of the pleural membrane (py/o means pus, and -thorax means chest).
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Empyema
refers to a collection of pus in a body cavity.
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Hemothorax
is a collection of blood in the pleural cavity (hem/o means blood, and -thorax means chest). This condition often results from chest trauma, such as a stab wound, or it can be caused by disease or surgery.
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pneumothorax
is the accumulation of air in the pleural space resulting in a pressure imbalance that causes the lung to fully or partially collapse (pneum/o means lung or air, and -thorax means chest). This can have an external cause, such as a stab wound through the chest wall, or it can occur when there is a lung-disease-related rupture in the pleura that allows air to leak into the pleural space
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Acute respiratory distress syndrome
is a lung condition usually caused by trauma, pneumonia, smoke or fumes, inhaled vomit, or sepsis. Sepsis is a systemic bacterial infection in the bloodstream. ARDS is a life-threatening condition in which inflammation in the lungs and fluid in the alveoli lead to low levels of oxygen in the blood.
Pneumothorax is an accumulation of air or gas in the pleural space that causes the lung to collapse. In the left lung, a perforation in the pleura allowed air to escape into the pleural space.
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Atelectasis
or collapsed lung, is the incomplete expansion of part or all of a lung due to a blockage of the air passages or pneumothorax (atel means incomplete, and -ectasis means stretching or enlargement)
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Pulmonary edema
is an accumulation of fluid in lung tissues, especially the alveoli. Edema means swelling. Pulmonary edema is often a symptom of heart failure
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Pulmonary embolism
is the sudden blockage of a pulmonary artery by foreign matter or by an embolus that has formed in the leg or pelvic region.
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Pneumorrhagia
is bleeding from the lungs (pneum/o means lungs, and -rrhagia means bleeding).
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Tuberculosis
which is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, usually attacks the lungs; however, it can also affect other parts of the body. Pleurisy and coughing up blood (hemoptysis) can be symptoms of TB in the lungs.
TB occurs most commonly in individuals whose immune systems are weakened by another condition such as AIDS. A healthy individual can carry latent TB without showing symptoms of the disease. Latent means present but not active.
Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis is a dangerous form of the disease that can occur when the prescribed drug regimen is not strictly followed, rendering the treatment insufficient to destroy all the bacteria.
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Pneumonia
is a serious inflammation of the lungs in which the alveoli and air passages fill with pus and other fluids (pneumon means lung, and -ia means abnormal condition). Pneumonia is most commonly caused by an infection and often follows a cold, flu, chronic illness, or other condition, especially in the elderly, that weakens the immune system and its ability to stave off infection.
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There are two types of bacterial pneumonia named for the parts of the lungs affected
Bronchopneumonia (brong-koh-new-MOH-nee-ah) is a localized form of pneumonia that often affects the bronchioles (bronch/o means bronchial tubes, pneumon means lung, and -ia means abnormal condition). Bronchopneumonia often leads to lobar pneumonia.
Lobar pneumonia affects larger areas of the lungs, often including one or more sections, or lobes, of a lung. Double pneumonia is lobar pneumonia involving both lungs and is usually a form of bacterial pneumonia.
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