Chapter 7 Flashcards
(197 cards)
1
Q
Term/Front
A
Definition/Back
2
Q
What does the immune system use to recognize if a cell or molecule is self or non-self?
A
The immune system uses antigens to recognize if a cell or molecule is self or non-self.
3
Q
What are the two different types of antigens?
A
The two different types of antigens are self-antigens and non-self antigens.
4
Q
What is the role of self-antigens in the immune system?
A
Self-antigens mark the cells of an organism as ‘self’ so the immune system does not attack them.
5
Q
What are MHC Class I markers and where are they found?
A
MHC Class I markers are expressed on all nucleated cells in the body, marking them as self.
6
Q
Where are MHC Class II markers found?
A
MHC Class II markers are found on specialized cells of the immune system.
7
Q
What is an antigen?
A
An antigen is any molecule that may trigger an immune response.
8
Q
Can antigens exist as free-floating molecules?
A
Yes, antigens do not need to be attached to a pathogen or cell
9
Q
What is a non-self antigen?
A
A non-self antigen is a molecule from outside the body that is recognized by the immune system and initiates an immune response, also known as a foreign antigen.
10
Q
How does the immune system respond to non-self antigens?
A
When a non-self antigen is recognized within the body, the immune system is activated and attempts to eliminate it, such as recognizing specific bacterial proteins as foreign.
11
Q
What role do MHC markers play in organ transplants?
A
MHC markers differ between individuals
12
Q
What is an autoimmune disease?
A
An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system mistakenly recognizes self-antigens as non-self, leading to the attack of self-cells, such as in rheumatoid arthritis and lupus.
13
Q
What are allergens?
A
Allergens are a subcategory of antigens that the immune system recognizes as non-self, initiating a strong immune response, even though they are not pathogenic.
14
Q
What is an autoimmune disease?
A
A disease in which an individual’s immune system initiates an immune response against their own cells.
15
Q
What is an allergen?
A
A non-pathogenic antigen that triggers an allergic reaction.
16
Q
What characterizes an allergic reaction?
A
An overreaction of the immune system to a non-pathogenic antigen.
17
Q
What are the two categories of pathogens?
A
Cellular pathogens, which have a cellular structure and are living organisms, and non-cellular pathogens, which do not have a cellular structure and are non-living.
18
Q
What are extracellular threats?
A
Threats found outside of a cell that can interfere with its functioning, such as bacteria.
19
Q
What are intracellular threats?
A
Threats found within a cell that can interfere with its functioning, including viruses and non-pathogenic threats like cumulative mutations to DNA.
20
Q
What is a cellular pathogen?
A
A pathogen that has a cellular structure and exhibits the processes of a living organism, such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and parasites.
21
Q
What defines a non-cellular pathogen?
A
A pathogen that neither has a cellular structure nor exhibits the processes of a living organism, including examples like viruses and prions.
22
Q
What does lysis refer to?
A
The disintegration or rupturing of a cell.
23
Q
What are hyphae?
A
Branching filaments of a fungus that help absorb nutrients from the environment.
24
Q
What is a parasite?
A
An organism that lives in or on another organism, usually deriving nutrition from the host organism.
25
What is the primary function of the adaptive immune system?
The primary function of the adaptive immune system is to recognize and remember specific pathogens, leading to a stronger and faster response upon subsequent exposures.
26
What are the two main types of adaptive immunity?
The two main types of adaptive immunity are humoral immunity, which involves B cells and antibodies, and cell-mediated immunity, which involves T cells.
27
How do B cells contribute to the immune response?
B cells contribute to the immune response by producing antibodies that bind to specific antigens, neutralizing pathogens, and marking them for destruction by other immune cells.
28
What role do T cells play in the immune system?
T cells play a crucial role in the immune system by directly killing infected cells and coordinating the immune response through the release of cytokines.
29
What is the significance of memory cells in the adaptive immune system?
Memory cells are significant in the adaptive immune system because they provide long-lasting immunity by remembering past infections, allowing for a quicker response to future encounters with the same pathogen.
30
What is the primary function of the innate immune system?
The primary function of the innate immune system is to provide immediate, non-specific defense against pathogens.
31
What are the two main types of immune responses?
The two main types of immune responses are the humoral immune response and the cell-mediated immune response.
32
What role do antigens play in the immune system?
Antigens are substances that trigger an immune response, allowing the immune system to recognize and attack pathogens.
33
How does the body distinguish between self and non-self?
The body distinguishes between self and non-self through specific markers on cells, primarily using major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules.
34
What is an autoimmune disease?
An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own cells as if they were foreign invaders.
35
What is the first line of defense in the innate immune system?
The first line of defense is characterized by physical, chemical, and microbiological barriers that prevent pathogenic invasion.
36
How does the innate immune system respond to pathogens?
The innate immune system responds in a non-specific manner to foreign antigens, reacting the same way regardless of the type of pathogen or antigen present.
37
What is the characteristic of the second line of defense in the innate immune system?
The second line of defense is characterized by a non-specific response to injury and/or pathogens by various cells and molecules.
38
Why do plants need first line defenses against pathogens?
Plants need first line defenses to protect themselves from pathogens and herbivory, as they lack the advanced forms of immunity that animals possess.
39
What is meant by 'non-specific' in the context of the immune system?
'Non-specific' describes components of the immune system that respond the same way to all pathogens, without distinguishing between them.
40
What are the two types of barriers present in the first line of defense of plants?
Physical and chemical barriers.
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What is a physical barrier in the first line of defense?
A component that features solid or fluid obstacles that block pathogen entry, such as skin or mucus.
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What is a chemical barrier in the first line of defense?
A component that uses enzymes, toxins, and acids to protect against pathogen invasion.
43
What is the cuticle in plants?
A waxy protective film covering the surface of a plant leaf.
44
What is a gall in plants?
An abnormal outgrowth of tissue designed to limit the spread of an invading pathogen.
45
What are trichomes?
Small hairs on the surface of plants used to deter pathogens and/or insects.
46
What is a stoma?
A small pore on the leaf’s surface that opens and closes to regulate gas exchange.
47
What are the three types of first line defenses animals have against pathogens?
Physical, chemical, and microbiological barriers.
48
What is a microbiological barrier in the context of animal defenses?
A component of the first line of defense where the presence of normal microbiota helps prevent pathogen invasion.
49
What is the microbiological barrier?
A component of the first line of defence where the presence of normal flora limits the growth of pathogenic bacteria.
50
What are cilia?
Thin, hair-like projections that protrude from eukaryotic cells.
51
What is flora in the context of microbiology?
Naturally occurring, non-pathogenic bacteria present in an organism.
52
What are the components of the first line of defence in animals and plants?
Various physical, chemical, and microbiological barriers designed to prevent pathogens from infecting them.
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What happens if the first line of defence fails?
There’s a backup plan – the second line of defence.
54
What is the second line of defense in the innate immune system?
The second line of defense is a component of the innate immune system that provides non-specific and immediate protection against pathogens that have breached the first line of defense.
55
What are the two components of the second line of defense?
The two components of the second line of defense are cellular and non-cellular components.
56
What type of cells are involved in the second line of defense?
The cells involved in the second line of defense are called leukocytes, or white blood cells.
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How does the second line of defense respond to pathogens?
The second line of defense responds to injury and pathogens with a non-specific and immediate response.
58
What are leukocytes and their primary function?
Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells, are a group of blood cells responsible for protecting the body against pathogens and foreign material.
59
What is phagocytosis?
Phagocytosis is a process in which phagocytes consume and destroy foreign or dead material present in the body by engulfing it through endocytosis.
60
What role do lysosomes play in phagocytosis?
Lysosomes containing antimicrobial enzymes called lysozymes destroy the foreign or dead material by fusing with the vesicles containing the engulfed material.
61
Which types of phagocytes are mentioned?
The phagocytes mentioned include neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells.
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What is the primary function of neutrophils?
Neutrophils are the most common type of leukocyte in the body and engage in phagocytosis of pathogens and foreign material, as well as the release of cytokines.
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What are antigen-presenting cells?
Antigen-presenting cells, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, consume and destroy foreign material and present antigens from consumed material on their surface.
64
What is the significance of MHC Class II in antigen-presenting cells?
Antigen-presenting cells express MHC Class II to present consumed antigens on their surface, allowing interaction with the adaptive immune system.
65
What role do cytokines play in the immune system?
Cytokines are important cell signalling molecules that help protect against pathogens and guide immune cells to the site of infection or injury.
66
What are natural killer (NK) cells and their function?
Natural killer cells are large granulated cells that target both abnormal and virally infected cells.
67
What are the two types of receptors present on natural killer cells?
The two types of receptors are the killer inhibitory receptor and the killer activation receptor.
68
How does the killer inhibitory receptor function?
The killer inhibitory receptor examines the surface of cells for MHC Class I markers and can override the killer activation signal if sufficient markers are detected.
69
What happens when MHC Class I markers are absent?
Cell death is initiated in infected or abnormal cells with missing MHC Class I markers when the killer activation receptor is activated and the killer inhibitory receptor cannot bind to sufficient markers.
70
What do mast cells release when activated?
Mast cells release histamine when activated.
71
What is the role of eosinophils in the immune response?
Eosinophils help destroy invading pathogens that are too large to be phagocytosed by degranulating on contact and releasing toxic chemical mediators.
72
What are some non-cellular components of the second line of defense?
Non-cellular components include interferons, complement proteins, and the initiation of a fever.
73
What do interferons do when a cell is infected with a virus?
Interferons interact with receptors on neighboring cells, making them less susceptible to viral infection.
74
What is the complement cascade?
The complement cascade is a series of reactions among complement proteins in the blood that occurs in the presence of certain pathogens.
75
What is a fever?
A fever is a temporary increase in body temperature, initiated by a complex series of responses that raise the set temperature point of the body.
76
How does the body respond to a fever?
The body initiates countermeasures such as shivering and heat-conserving behaviors to increase core body temperature to the new setpoint.
77
Why are fevers beneficial to the immune system?
Fevers help activate certain proteins that bolster the strength of the body’s defenses and create an environment where many pathogens cannot survive.
78
What is the complement cascade?
The complement cascade is a complex sequence of events that occurs after the activation of complement proteins.
79
What is opsonisation?
Opsonisation is the mechanism by which complement proteins attach to the surface of pathogens, making them easier to phagocytose.
80
What is a cytokine?
A cytokine is a signaling molecule released by cells, typically in the immune system, that aids in communication between immune cells and helps protect against pathogens.
81
What role do natural killer (NK) cells play in the immune system?
Natural killer (NK) cells are leukocytes responsible for the recognition and destruction of damaged and/or infected host cells.
82
What is the function of mast cells?
Mast cells are leukocytes responsible for releasing histamine during allergic and inflammatory responses.
83
What is degranulation?
The release of granule contents from a cell.
84
What role does histamine play in the body?
Histamine is a molecule released by mast cells that plays a key role in inflammation.
85
What characterizes the inflammatory response?
Swelling, redness, pain, and heat in the affected tissue.
86
What is the function of eosinophils?
Eosinophils are large granular leukocytes responsible for the release of toxic chemical mediators.
87
What is the role of interferon in the immune response?
Interferon is a cytokine released by virally infected cells that increases the viral resistance of neighboring uninfected cells.
88
What do complement proteins do?
Complement proteins opsonize, cause lysis, and attract phagocytes to invading pathogens.
89
What is chemotaxis?
The attraction of phagocytes towards a pathogen.
90
What is the membrane attack complex (MAC)?
A pore formed by complement proteins in the cell membranes of a pathogen, disrupting the membrane and leading to the pathogen’s destruction.
91
What are the three main aspects of the inflammatory response?
Initiation, vasodilation, and migration.
92
What happens during vasodilation?
The widening of blood vessels.
93
What initiates the inflammatory response when a splinter pierces the skin?
Macrophages become activated and release cytokines, while mast cells degranulate and release histamine.
94
What is the role of histamine in vasodilation during inflammation?
Histamine released from mast cells binds to specific receptors on blood vessels, causing them to widen and increasing blood flow to the injury site, leading to swelling, redness, and warmth.
95
How does vasodilation affect the permeability of blood vessels?
Vasodilation and the formation of gaps in the vessel wall increase its permeability, allowing immune system components to exit the bloodstream and enter the site of injury.
96
What types of cells migrate to the site of injury during inflammation?
Phagocytes, including macrophages and neutrophils, migrate to the site of injury guided by cytokines to phagocytose and digest pathogens.
97
What is the function of complement proteins in the immune response?
Complement proteins are attracted to pathogens and facilitate the destruction of these pathogens by phagocytes.
98
What causes the formation of pus in an injured area?
Pus is caused by an increase in blood flow and immune cell activity, containing a large amount of dead immune cells and pathogens.
99
What does the second line of defense consist of?
The second line of defense consists of a number of non-specific cells and molecules that work quickly to limit the spread of injury or infection.
100
What is an important example of the interaction of immune components in response to injury?
An important example is the inflammatory response.
101
What initiates the third line of defence in the immune system?
The presentation of non-self antigens to specific immune cells of the adaptive immune system initiates the third line of defence.
102
What are the two unique features of the adaptive immune system?
The two unique features are specificity, which allows the adaptive immune system to respond uniquely to each distinct pathogen, and immunological memory, which enables quick and effective responses to future re-infections by previously encountered pathogens.
103
How does the third line of defence differ from the second line of defence?
The third line of defence is designed to combat pathogens that have breached the first line of defence, and it has unique features such as specificity and immunological memory, which are not present in the second line of defence.
104
What is the third line of defense in the immune system?
A subset of the immune system within vertebrates composed of the humoral and cell-mediated responses that create a specific immune response and form immunological memory.
105
What is immunological memory?
The ability of the immune system to quickly and aggressively combat a previously encountered pathogen due to the presence of T and B memory cells.
106
What is antigen presentation?
A key process in the initiation of the adaptive immune response involving the selection of T helper cells via the display of pathogenic antigens on MHC Class II markers by antigen-presenting cells.
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What role do antigen-presenting cells (APCs) play in the immune response?
APCs engulf and digest pathogens, displaying pathogenic antigens on their MHC Class II markers and presenting them to T helper cells in lymph nodes.
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What happens when a T helper cell is activated?
The activated T helper cell can help initiate the adaptive immune response through either the humoral or cell-mediated immune responses.
109
What is a T lymphocyte?
A type of lymphocyte that plays an important role in cell-mediated immunity, differentiating into cytotoxic T cells, T memory cells, and T helper cells.
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What is the function of T helper cells?
T helper cells support the functioning of various immune cells, including the cloning and differentiation of selected T and B cells.
111
What is the lymphatic system?
A large network of vessels and tissues throughout the body that forms an important component of both the circulatory and immune systems.
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What is the role of lymph nodes in the immune system?
Lymph nodes are small secondary lymphoid tissues where antigen-presenting cells activate the adaptive immune system.
113
What is humoral immunity?
An adaptive immune response in which extracellular pathogens are targeted by specific antibodies produced by plasma cells, also known as B cell immunity.
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What is cell-mediated immunity?
An adaptive immune response in which infected or abnormal cells are targeted by T lymphocytes.
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What is cell-mediated immunity?
An adaptive immune response in which infected or abnormal cells are destroyed by cytotoxic T cells, also known as T cell immunity.
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What is humoral immunity?
Humoral immunity involves the neutralisation and destruction of extracellular pathogens via the production and secretion of antibodies.
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What type of white blood cells are key mediators of humoral immunity?
B lymphocytes.
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What is the process called when a B cell interacts with a complementary antigen?
Selection of the B cell.
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What do T helper cells secrete to stimulate B cells?
Cytokines.
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What is clonal selection theory?
The process of selecting the specific T helper cell and B cell through their interaction with antigens.
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What are the two types of B cells that result from differentiation?
B memory cells and effector cells (plasma cells).
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What do plasma cells do after differentiating?
They secrete antibodies into the blood to defend against the selected pathogen.
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What is the role of B memory cells?
They reside in the body for a prolonged period and are responsible for immunological memory.
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What is a B lymphocyte?
A type of lymphocyte that plays an important role in humoral immunity and differentiates into plasma cells and B memory cells.
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What is an antibody?
A protein produced by plasma cells during the adaptive immune response that is specific to an antigen and combats pathogens in various ways, also known as immunoglobulin.
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What is a cytokine?
A signalling molecule released by cells (typically in the immune system) which aids in communication between immune cells and helps protect against pathogens.
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What is clonal expansion?
The process in which many copies of a lymphocyte are generated.
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What is clonal selection?
The process in which B and T cells encounter an antigen that matches their antigen-binding site, and then generate many copies of themselves, also known as clonal selection theory.
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What is differentiation in the context of immune cells?
The process in which cells develop specialised characteristics, typically transforming them from one cell type to another more specialised cell type.
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What is a B memory cell?
A differentiated B lymphocyte that is responsible for providing long-lasting immunological memory of an antigen.
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What is an effector cell?
A cell that responds to a signal and produces a response.
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What is a plasma cell?
A differentiated B lymphocyte that is responsible for the generation and secretion of antibodies during the humoral response.
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What is the structure of antibodies?
Antibodies released by plasma cells are proteins with a quaternary structure, composed of four polypeptide chains, including two heavy chains and two light chains, arranged into a ‘Y’ shape.
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What are the two regions of an antibody called?
The 'stem' is known as the constant region, and the tops of the 'arms' are known as the variable region.
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How many antigen-binding sites does an antibody have?
An antibody has two identical binding sites for the same specific complementary antigen.
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What are the five types of antibodies?
IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM.
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What process allows antibodies to be specific to a pathogen?
The process of clonal selection.
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What is the role of antibodies in the humoral immune response?
Antibodies interact with pathogenic antigens in a number of key ways.
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What is a disulphide bond?
A strong covalent bond occurring between two sulphur atoms.
140
What does agglutination refer to in the immune system?
The clumping of particles together, where antibodies can help clump pathogens.
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What is an antigen-antibody complex?
A structure formed by the complementary binding between antigen and antibody molecules.
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What is the membrane attack complex (MAC)?
A pore formed by complement proteins in the cell membranes of a pathogen, disrupting the membrane and leading to the pathogen’s death.
143
What is the Rhesus antigen?
An antigen on the surface of red blood cells that can cause an immune response if not matched correctly between donor and receiver.
144
What is cell-mediated immunity?
Involves the destruction of infected or abnormal cells via the clonal selection of a cytotoxic T cell.
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What role do cytotoxic T cells play in cell-mediated immunity?
They assess the MHC Class I marker of infected cells to carry out their role.
146
What role do cytotoxic T cells play in recognizing infected cells?
Cytotoxic T cells assess the MHC Class I marker of infected cells and can detect foreign viral antigens presented on the surface.
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What happens during the process of clonal selection in T cells?
A naïve T cell with a matching T cell receptor is selected and stimulated by cytokines from T helper cells, leading to clonal expansion and differentiation.
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What types of T cells are produced from the differentiation of selected T cells?
Selected T cells differentiate into effector cells called cytotoxic T cells and T memory cells.
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What is the function of T memory cells?
T memory cells are copies of the originally selected T cell that reside in the body for extended periods and help form immunological memory.
150
How do cytotoxic T cells induce apoptosis in abnormal cells?
Cytotoxic T cells bind to abnormal cells presenting complementary foreign antigens on their MHC Class I complex and secrete chemicals like perforin to induce apoptosis.
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What is a Cytotoxic T cell (Tc)?
A differentiated T lymphocyte responsible for the destruction of infected or abnormal cells.
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What is the role of T memory cells?
They provide long-lasting immunological memory.
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What is apoptosis?
The controlled death of cells in the body, also known as programmed cell death.
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What is immunological memory?
The ability of B memory cells and T memory cells to remain in the blood for an extended period, allowing quick and effective responses to previously encountered pathogens.
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How do B memory cells contribute to immunological memory?
By rapidly dividing and forming new antibody-producing plasma cells when encountering an antigen that matches their receptor.
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What happens to T memory cells upon stimulation by an antigen-presenting cell?
They proliferate rapidly into T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells.
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How do B memory cells maintain immunological memory?
By constantly secreting low amounts of their antibody, ensuring trace amounts are present in the blood.
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What are the advantages of immunological memory?
It allows for a more rapid and effective immune response upon re-infection, preventing disease formation.
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What are the two responses of the adaptive immune system?
The humoral response, which destroys pathogens via antibodies, and the cell-mediated response, which kills infected or abnormal cells.
160
What is the role of cytotoxic T cells in the immune response?
Cytotoxic T cells are responsible for killing infected or abnormal cells.
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What do both humoral and cell-mediated responses create that enhances future responses to pathogens?
Both responses result in the creation of immunological memory.
162
What are the two primary functions of the lymphatic system?
To act as a transport system for antigen-presenting cells and pathogens, and to serve as the location of clonal selection.
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What role does the lymphatic system play in the immune system?
It transports antigen-presenting cells to secondary lymphoid tissues for antigen recognition and initiates the adaptive immune response.
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What is an antigen-presenting cell?
A subgroup of phagocytes that display the antigens from consumed pathogens on their surface and interact with the adaptive immune system.
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What are secondary lymphoid tissues responsible for?
They maintain mature lymphocytes and activate the adaptive immune response, including lymph nodes and the spleen.
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What is the function of primary lymphoid tissues?
They are responsible for the production and maturation of lymphocytes, including bone marrow and the thymus.
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What is lymph?
A pale fluid that flows through the lymphatic system and has a high concentration of leukocytes.
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What components make up the lymphatic system?
A series of lymphatic vessels that transport lymph to primary and secondary lymphoid tissues.
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What are the primary lymphoid tissues responsible for?
The creation and maturation of lymphocytes.
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Which primary lymphoid tissues are involved in lymphocyte production?
Bone marrow and thymus.
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Where do B lymphocytes mature?
In the bone marrow.
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Where do T lymphocytes travel to mature?
To the thymus.
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What is the role of secondary lymphoid tissues?
To maintain mature lymphocytes and initiate the adaptive immune response.
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What are examples of secondary lymphoid tissues?
Lymph nodes and spleen.
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What happens when a foreign antigen matches the receptors of specific lymphocytes?
The lymphocytes undergo clonal selection and differentiation.
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What results from the clonal selection and differentiation of lymphocytes?
A large number of B and T cells are created, causing swelling of lymph nodes when sick.
177
What is the primary function of bone marrow?
Bone marrow serves as the primary site of the creation of red blood cells and leukocytes.
178
Where is the thymus located and what is its function?
The thymus is a primary lymphoid organ located in the chest that serves as the site of T cell maturation.
179
What role do lymph nodes play in the immune system?
Lymph nodes are small secondary lymphoid tissues where antigen-presenting cells activate the adaptive immune system.
180
What are tonsils?
Tonsils are the two lymph nodes that reside at the back of the throat.
181
What functions does the spleen serve in the immune system?
The spleen serves a variety of functions in the immune system and the regulation of red blood cells.
182
What is clonal selection?
Clonal selection is the process in which B and T cells encounter an antigen that matches their antigen-binding site and generate many copies of themselves.
183
What is one of the primary functions of the lymphatic system?
One of the primary functions of the lymphatic system is to serve as a transport network for the transportation of antigen-presenting cells to lymph nodes for antigen presentation.
184
What are the three stages of the lymphatic system's function?
The three stages are lymphatic drainage, lymphatic flow, and lymphatic surveillance.
185
What is the role of the lymphatic system in preventing swelling from fluid leakage?
The lymphatic system collects excess fluid from tissues, known as lymph, and transports it away, preventing swelling.
186
What are lymphatic capillaries?
Lymphatic capillaries are the smallest form of lymphatic vessels that collect fluid and pathogens from tissues.
187
What happens to fluid that leaks from blood vessels during inflammation?
The fluid, along with leukocytes, leaks into tissues but is collected by the lymphatic system to prevent swelling.
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What is lymph?
Lymph is the clear fluid collected by lymphatic capillaries from tissues.
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How do lymphatic vessels form?
Small lymphatic capillaries gradually join together to form larger vessels that contain increasing amounts of lymph.
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What is the role of lymphatic vessels in the immune system?
Lymphatic vessels collect lymph from tissues and transport it to lymph nodes, where it interacts with immune cells.
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How do lymphatic vessels ensure the unidirectional flow of lymph?
Lymphatic vessels feature one-way valves that prevent backflow, allowing lymph to move away from tissues towards lymph nodes.
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What happens to lymph as it drains through lymph nodes?
Lymph travels through clusters of B and T cells, where antigen-presenting cells and pathogens may stimulate clonal selection.
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What are afferent lymphatic vessels?
Afferent lymphatic vessels are thin-walled structures that collect lymph from tissues and deliver it to lymph nodes.
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What are efferent lymphatic vessels?
Efferent lymphatic vessels are thin-walled structures that collect lymph that has drained through lymph nodes and return it to circulation.
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Why is there a delay in the adaptive immune response?
The delay is due to the lengthy process of transportation within the lymphatic system, antigen presentation, and clonal selection.
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How does the adaptive immune system differ from the innate immune system?
The adaptive immune system is slower to activate compared to the innate immune system, which provides immediate protection.
197
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