Chapter 8 Flashcards
(128 cards)
1
Q
Term/Front
A
Definition/Back
2
Q
What is natural immunity?
A
Natural immunity is immunity to a disease that has developed without any medical intervention.
3
Q
How is natural immunity classified?
A
Natural immunity can be classified based on how it was generated, either through active or passive immunity.
4
Q
What is the difference between active and passive immunity?
A
Active immunity is developed by a person’s own adaptive immune system creating antibodies and memory cells, while passive immunity is created by antibodies from an external source.
5
Q
What is natural active immunity?
A
Natural active immunity is protection against a disease created by antibodies and memory cells produced by an individual’s own immune system without medical intervention.
6
Q
What is natural passive immunity?
A
Natural passive immunity is protection against a disease created by antibodies from an external non-medical source.
7
Q
What is artificial immunity?
A
Artificial immunity is protection against a disease formed as a result of medical intervention, also known as induced immunity.
8
Q
What is natural active immunity?
A
Natural active immunity is created when an individual’s own immune system encounters a pathogen and mounts a response against it, creating antibodies and memory cells specific to that pathogen.
9
Q
How does natural active immunity protect the body upon re-exposure to a pathogen?
A
Upon re-exposure, the pathogen is rapidly recognized by memory cells, which proliferate and differentiate to neutralize the pathogen before it can cause disease.
10
Q
What is natural passive immunity?
A
Natural passive immunity is created when an individual acquires antibodies from a natural, non-medical external source.
11
Q
What are the two main sources of natural passive immunity?
A
The two main sources are breastfeeding, where antibodies from the mother are ingested by the baby, and the placenta, where antibodies cross into the fetus’s bloodstream during pregnancy.
12
Q
Why is breastfeeding important for infants in terms of immunity?
A
Breastfeeding provides essential antibodies that protect infants against pathogens, compensating for their poorly developed adaptive immune systems.
13
Q
How do antibodies cross from the mother to the fetus?
A
Antibodies produced by the mother can cross the placenta and enter the fetus’s bloodstream via the umbilical cord.
14
Q
What is artificial immunity?
A
Artificial immunity is immunity to a disease that has developed as a result of medical intervention.
15
Q
What is artificial immunity?
A
Artificial immunity is immunity to a disease that has developed as a result of medical intervention.
16
Q
What is artificially acquired active immunity?
A
Artificially acquired active immunity is formed after vaccination.
17
Q
How is artificially acquired passive immunity formed?
A
Artificially acquired passive immunity is formed when an individual receives an injection of preformed antibodies.
18
Q
What is the basis of how vaccines work?
A
Vaccines create artificial active immunity by prompting an individual’s own adaptive immune system to produce antibodies and memory cells.
19
Q
What do vaccines contain?
A
Vaccines contain components that resemble a certain pathogen’s antigens but are not able to cause disease.
20
Q
What is the primary immune response?
A
The primary immune response is the initial response of the adaptive immune system after a person receives their first vaccination.
21
Q
What happens during the secondary immune response?
A
The secondary immune response occurs when the immune system encounters the actual pathogen after the primary response, allowing for a faster and more effective attack.
22
Q
What occurs during the primary immune response?
A
A moderate number of antibodies and memory cells are formed, but these quickly diminish over time.
23
Q
What happens upon receiving a second vaccination?
A
Memory cells from the first vaccine recognize the antigen and mount a rapid, large secondary immune response, generating a large number of antibodies and memory cells for long-lasting immunity.
24
Q
Why are multiple vaccinations typically needed?
A
To achieve long-term immunity, as vaccination programs vary depending on the type of vaccine and disease being prevented.
25
What is the primary immune response?
The reaction of the adaptive immune system to an antigen it has not previously been exposed to.
26
What is the secondary immune response?
The heightened reaction of the adaptive immune system to an antigen it has previously been exposed to.
27
What is a vaccination program?
A series of vaccinations designed to create long-term immunity to a disease, also known as a vaccination schedule.
28
What are booster vaccines?
Vaccines administered later after the initial vaccination program to enhance existing immunity against a disease.
29
What is artificial passive immunity?
Immunity created when an individual acquires antibodies from an external source via medical intervention, such as an injection or infusion.
30
What happens to antibodies after an injection or infusion?
Antibody treatments immediately increase the number of antibodies in the blood, but over time these antibodies degrade until they disappear, along with the immunity they created.
31
Why won't someone develop active immunity if only given antibodies?
Because the antibodies received will not trigger the production of memory cells responsible for immunological memory.
32
What is artificial passive immunity?
Protection against a disease created by antibodies from an external medical source, also known as artificially acquired passive immunity.
33
What is antivenom?
A medical treatment containing antibodies specific to the toxins present in venomous bites or stings.
34
What is herd immunity?
Herd immunity is achieved when the majority of people in a community are immune to a particular pathogen, helping to prevent its spread to those who haven’t been vaccinated or infected.
35
How does herd immunity protect non-immune individuals?
When a high percentage of a population is immune to a disease, it reduces the likelihood of non-immune individuals coming into contact with the pathogen, thus protecting them.
36
What factors influence the level of herd immunity required?
The exact number of people that need to be immune depends on the disease
37
What are the four types of immunity that individuals can acquire?
Natural active, natural passive, artificial active, and artificial passive.
38
What is the role of vaccinations in immunity?
Vaccinations are a medical intervention containing non-disease-causing antigens that result in the formation of artificial active immunity.
39
What is herd immunity?
Herd immunity is generated when a sufficiently large proportion of a population is immune to a disease via vaccination or natural active immunity, protecting those who are unvaccinated.
40
What are emerging diseases?
Emerging diseases are diseases that have not occurred in humans before, have occurred previously but only affected particular populations in isolated places, or have occurred throughout history but have only recently been recognized as being caused by pathogens.
41
What defines re-emerging diseases?
Re-emerging diseases are diseases that were once major public health problems, declined dramatically in incidence, but are again becoming health problems for a large number of people.
42
What are the two key aspects to understand about infectious diseases?
The two key aspects are how contagious the pathogen is (how easily it is transmitted between people) and how virulent the pathogen is (how severe the disease it causes).
43
What is the difference between infectious and non-infectious diseases?
Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens, while non-infectious diseases are not caused by pathogens and can have various causes such as genetic factors or lifestyle choices.
44
What is a contagious disease?
A contagious disease is an illness caused by a pathogen that can be transmitted and spread between different people.
45
What does contagious mean in relation to a pathogen?
Contagious refers to a property of a pathogen or disease meaning that it can be transmitted from one organism to another.
46
What is virulence?
Virulence is the potential of a pathogen or disease to cause serious illness or harm.
47
What defines an emerging disease?
An emerging disease is an infectious disease that is new to the human population, or that is rapidly increasing in incidence.
48
What is a re-emerging disease?
A re-emerging disease is an infectious disease that was previously under control but that is now increasing in incidence.
49
What does incidence refer to in epidemiology?
Incidence refers to the frequency of a disease in a population.
50
What is zoonosis?
Zoonosis is an infectious disease that is caused by a pathogen that has transferred from an animal to a human.
51
What is a reservoir in the context of infectious diseases?
A reservoir is a population of animals or environment in which a pathogen normally lives.
52
What are the two main categories of disease outbreaks based on geographic spread?
Epidemics and pandemics.
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What characterizes an epidemic?
A sudden, widespread increase in the occurrence of an infectious disease among a specific population in a specific location at a particular time.
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How does a pandemic differ from an epidemic?
A pandemic involves epidemics that have spread to different countries and/or continents, affecting a greater number of people and being more difficult to control.
55
What does it mean for a disease to be endemic?
A disease is endemic in a given population when it is found at a constant baseline level throughout the population in a specific location.
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Why is it important for authorities to respond quickly to emerging and re-emerging diseases?
To prevent an unexpectedly large group of people from becoming infected, which could lead to an outbreak.
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What is an endemic disease?
An endemic disease is one that is found at a relatively constant baseline level throughout a population in a specific location at a particular time.
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What is the difference between an outbreak and an epidemic?
An outbreak is a sudden and unexpected increase in the occurrence of a disease, while an epidemic is a dramatically increased occurrence of a disease in a particular community at a particular time.
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What defines a pandemic?
A pandemic is an epidemic that has spread across multiple countries and/or continents.
60
What impact did European arrival have on Indigenous populations in Australia?
The arrival of Europeans in the 18th century introduced diseases that quickly spread throughout the non-immune Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations, infecting and killing thousands.
61
What techniques do scientists use to identify pathogens that cause disease?
Scientists use a variety of physical, immunological, and molecular techniques to identify pathogens.
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What happens when a pathogen changes to become more contagious or virulent?
When a pathogen changes to become more contagious or virulent, it can lead to an outbreak that may escalate into an epidemic or pandemic.
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Why is it important to identify the exact pathogen causing a patient's symptoms?
Identifying the exact pathogen is crucial for selecting the appropriate response to treat the patient and limit the spread of disease.
64
What is the definition of a pathogen?
A pathogen is an agent that causes disease.
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What does it mean for a disease to be contagious?
Contagious means that the disease can be transmitted from one organism to another.
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What is virulence in the context of pathogens?
Virulence is the potential of a pathogen or disease to cause serious illness or harm.
67
What is an outbreak?
An outbreak is a sudden and unexpected increase in the occurrence of a disease.
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How is an epidemic defined?
An epidemic is a dramatically increased occurrence of a disease in a particular community at a particular time.
69
What is a pandemic?
A pandemic is an epidemic that has spread across multiple countries and/or continents.
70
What does serology study?
Serology is the study of blood serum, typically to determine the presence of antibodies and/or antigens.
71
What is serum?
Serum is the fluid and solute component of blood that excludes blood cells, platelets, and clotting factors.
72
What is the purpose of the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)?
ELISA is an experimental technique used to identify a pathogen by determining the presence of antigens or antibodies in a sample.
73
What are the five key methods of disease transmission?
The five key methods of transmission are airborne transmission, droplet transmission, direct physical contact, indirect physical contact, and faecal-oral transmission.
74
What is the process called that allows pathogens to move from one host to another?
Transmission
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What are the two general categories of pathogen transmission?
Direct transmission and indirect transmission
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What characterizes direct transmission of pathogens?
Contact between an infected person and a susceptible person, either through physical contact or close proximity.
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How does indirect transmission occur?
Without any form of contact or proximity between an infected person and a susceptible person.
78
Can pathogens utilize multiple modes of transmission?
Yes, many pathogens can be acquired via multiple modes, such as airborne or droplet transmission.
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How do pathogens that spread via the faecal-oral route often transmit?
Indirectly through contaminated food and water.
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What is a host in the context of disease transmission?
A host is an organism that harbours a pathogen.
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What does transmission refer to in disease context?
Transmission is the passing of a pathogen from an infected host to another individual or group.
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What is airborne transmission?
Airborne transmission is the spread of pathogens through air via small particles, traditionally less than 5μm.
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What is droplet transmission?
Droplet transmission is the spread of pathogens through air and contaminated surfaces via respiratory droplets.
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What are respiratory droplets?
Respiratory droplets are droplets, traditionally greater than 5μm, produced by breathing, talking, vomiting, and coughing, which may contain saliva, mucus, and pathogens.
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What is direct physical contact transmission?
Direct physical contact transmission is the spread of pathogens through contact between a host and another individual.
86
What is vertical transmission?
Vertical transmission is the spread of pathogens from mother to child during gestation, childbirth, or post-birth due to close physical contact and breastfeeding.
87
What does iatrogenic mean?
Iatrogenic describes a disease caused by medical intervention.
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What is indirect physical contact transmission?
Indirect physical contact transmission is the spread of pathogens via contaminated objects or vectors.
89
What are fomites?
Fomites are inanimate objects that, when contaminated with a pathogen, can transmit that pathogen to a new host.
90
What is a vector in disease transmission?
A vector is an organism that is not affected by a disease but spreads it between hosts.
91
What is faecal-oral transmission?
Faecal-oral transmission is the spread of pathogens via oral consumption of contaminated faeces.
92
What is the overview of controlling disease transmission?
The approach to managing a disease is complex and depends on the pathogen, generally including identification, prevention, control measures, and treatment.
93
What are the stages involved in controlling the spread of pathogens?
The stages include identifying the pathogen, identifying the mode of transmission, and undertaking measures to control transmission.
94
What is the goal of using management strategies to control pathogen spread?
The goal is to prevent large outbreaks of disease from occurring.
95
What is immunotherapy?
Immunotherapy is a form of medical treatment that modulates the functioning of the immune system in order to treat disease.
96
What are the two broad categories of immunotherapy?
The two broad categories of immunotherapy are activation immunotherapies, which aim to induce or amplify an immune response, and suppression immunotherapies, which aim to prevent or reduce an immune response.
97
Why is immunotherapy considered a useful treatment?
Immunotherapy is considered a useful treatment when dealing with diseases related to the immune system.
98
What is the status of many immunotherapy agents?
Many different types of treatments classified as forms of immunotherapy are still in experimental phases.
99
What are monoclonal antibodies?
Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies produced in a laboratory that bind to a specific antigen.
100
What is the role of monoclonal antibodies in immunotherapy?
Monoclonal antibodies are a very important component of antibody-based immunotherapy, used to treat diseases such as cancer and autoimmune diseases.
101
What is immunotherapy?
Immunotherapy refers to medical interventions that treat disease by modulating the immune system, typically by amplifying or reducing an immune response.
102
What is cancer?
Cancer is a disease caused by the uncontrolled replication of cells with the ability to migrate to other parts of the body.
103
What is an autoimmune disease?
An autoimmune disease is a disease in which an individual’s immune system initiates an immune response against their own cells.
104
What does the term 'chimeric' refer to in a biological context?
Chimeric refers to an organism or cell containing genetic material from another organism or cell.
105
What are monoclonal antibodies?
Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies produced in a laboratory that bind to a specific antigen and can target specific types or parts of cells for therapeutic purposes.
106
How can monoclonal antibodies be used therapeutically?
Monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer and autoimmune diseases by triggering the killing of cancerous or self-recognizing cells, and they can also treat diseases without modulating the immune system.
107
What is the traditional process for producing monoclonal antibodies?
The traditional process involves vaccinating an animal with an antigen, extracting B lymphocytes, fusing them with myeloma cells to create hybridomas, screening for the appropriate antibodies, cloning the hybridomas, and then collecting and purifying the antibodies.
108
Why are myeloma cells used in the production of monoclonal antibodies?
Myeloma cells are used because they can grow indefinitely and produce large quantities of antibodies, whereas B lymphocytes do not grow well in vitro.
109
What is the role of hybridomas in monoclonal antibody production?
Hybridomas are the products of the fusion between B lymphocytes and myeloma cells, and they are screened and cloned to mass-produce specific antibodies.
110
What role do B lymphocytes play in the immune system?
B lymphocytes play an important role in humoral immunity and differentiate into plasma cells and B memory cells.
111
What are myeloma cells?
Myeloma cells are rapidly-dividing cancerous plasma cells that are fused with extracted B cells from mice to produce hybridomas.
112
What is a hybridoma?
A hybridoma is the product of the fusion between a mouse’s extracted plasma cell and a myeloma cell.
113
How can monoclonal antibodies be used in cancer treatment?
Monoclonal antibodies can be used as activation immunotherapy to help the immune system recognize and kill cancer cells.
114
What is cancer?
Cancer is a complex group of diseases caused by the uncontrolled and unregulated replication of cells that invade other sites of the body.
115
What allows cancer cells to evade the immune system?
Cancerous cells can sometimes evade the immune system or develop mutations that suppress the immune response against them.
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What are the two types of monoclonal antibodies used in immunotherapy?
The two types of monoclonal antibodies used in immunotherapy are naked monoclonal antibodies and conjugated monoclonal antibodies.
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What is the mechanism of action of naked monoclonal antibodies?
Naked monoclonal antibodies bind to cancer cells and interact with immune system cells, particularly natural killer cells, causing them to recognize and kill the antibody-coated cancer cell.
118
What is the role of monoclonal antibodies in complement activation against cancer cells?
Monoclonal antibodies bind to cancer cells and interact with complement proteins, which can then destroy the cancerous cell by forming a membrane attack complex (MAC) or enhancing the function of other immune cells.
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What is the membrane attack complex (MAC)?
The membrane attack complex (MAC) is a pore formed by complement proteins in the cell membrane of a pathogen, disrupting the membrane and leading to the pathogen’s destruction.
120
How do immune checkpoints affect the immune system's ability to fight cancer?
Immune checkpoints are regulators that suppress the immune system. Some cancer cells secrete molecules that stimulate these checkpoints, reducing the immune system’s ability to recognize and destroy them.
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How can monoclonal antibodies enhance the immune response against cancer?
Monoclonal antibodies can block immune checkpoints, allowing the immune system to function at a greater capacity and destroy cancer cells more easily.
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What are conjugated monoclonal antibodies?
Conjugated monoclonal antibodies are monoclonal antibodies that have other molecules attached to them, which can be toxic to cancer cells, such as chemotherapy drugs or radioactive isotopes.
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What advantage do conjugated monoclonal antibodies provide in cancer treatment?
Due to their specificity for cancer cell antigens, conjugated monoclonal antibodies can specifically deliver toxic molecules to cancer cells, effectively killing them.
124
What are some non-immunotherapy ways monoclonal antibodies can be used to treat cancer?
Blocking cell growth by inhibiting connections between cancer cells and growth-promoting proteins, and triggering cell membrane destruction or apoptosis.
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How do traditional cancer therapies like chemotherapy and radiotherapy work?
They target and kill rapidly dividing cells, including cancer cells, but also affect other quickly dividing cells in the body, leading to side effects.
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What is a major advantage of antibody-based immunotherapies compared to traditional cancer treatments?
They tend to be more specific and targeted, stimulating the immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells rather than directly killing them.
127
What are monoclonal antibodies used for in the context of autoimmune diseases?
They can be used as suppression immunotherapy to reduce the immune system's attacks on self-cells that cause autoimmune diseases.
128
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