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Old Classes > Chapter 7- The Basis of Life > Flashcards

Chapter 7- The Basis of Life Flashcards

1
Q

Metabolism

A

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body.

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2
Q

What to reactions can metabolism be broken down into? Describe Both.

A

Catabolic- Break down of large chemicals to release energy

Anabolic- Build up large chemicals and require energy

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3
Q

Ingestion

A

The acquisition of food and other raw materials

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4
Q

Digestion

A

The process of converting food into a usable soluble form so that it can pass through membranes in the digestive tract and enter the body.

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5
Q

Absorption

A

The passage of nutrient molecules through the lining of the digestive tract into the body proper

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6
Q

How do absorbed molecules pass through cells lining the digestive tract?

A

By diffusion or active transport

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7
Q

Transport (2 clauses)

A
  1. The circulation of essential compound required to nourish the tissues
  2. The removal of waste products from the tissues
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8
Q

Assimilation

A

The building up of new tissues from digested food materials

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9
Q

Respiration

A

The consumption of oxygen by the body.

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10
Q

Cells use oxygen to….

A

Covert glucose into ATP, which is a ready source of energy for cellular activities

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11
Q

Excretion

A

The removal of waste products (such a CO2, water, and urea) produced during metabolic processes like respiration and assimilation.

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12
Q

Synthesis

A

The creation of complex molecules from simple one, also known as anabolism

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13
Q

Regulation

A

The control of physiological activities.

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14
Q

Homeostasis

A

The maintenence of the body’s internal encironment in a changing external environment by the body’s metabolism function.

Includes hormones and the nervous system.

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15
Q

Irritability

A

The ability to respond to a stimulus and is part of regulation.

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16
Q

Growth

A

An increase in size caused by a synthesis of new materials

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17
Q

Photosynthesis

A

The process by which plants convert CO2 and H2O into carbohydrates. Sunlight is harnessed by chlorophyll to drive this reaction.

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18
Q

Reproduction

A

The generation of additional individuals of a species.

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19
Q

All living things are composed to the elements

A 
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Phosphorus
and TRACES of
Magnesium
Iodine
Iron
Calcium
Other minerals
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20
Q

Protoplasm

A

The substance of life

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21
Q

Atom

A

Unit of an element

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22
Q

Molecule

A

Unit of a compound

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23
Q

Compounds. Give examples.

A

Formed by the chemical bonds of atoms

Water, CO2, Carbon dioxide

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24
Q

The chemical compounds in living matter can be divided into?

A

Organic and Inorganic compounds

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25
Q

Inorganic Compounds

A

Compounds that do not contain the element carbon, including salts and HCL

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26
Q

Organic Compounds

A

Made by living systems and contain carbon. They include carbohydrates, lipids proteins, and nucleic acids

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27
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio

Used as storage formed of energy or as structural molecules

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28
Q

What stores energy in animals vs plants?

A

Animals: Glucose and glycogen
Plants: Starch

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29
Q

Monosaccharides

A

Singe sugar subunits: Such as glucose and fructose

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30
Q

Describe the formula and structure of glucose

A

C6H12O6

Has a hexagonal structure with a six-carbon ring and H and OH bonded to each carbon

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31
Q

Disaccharide

A

Composed of two monosaccharide subunits

examples: Maltose and sucrose

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32
Q

Dehydration synthesis

A

Joins together single subunits by loss of a water molecule

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33
Q

Polusaccharide

A

Polymers or chains of repeating monosaccharide subunits.

Example: Glycogen and starch

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34
Q

Cellulose

A

A polysaccharide that serves a structural role in plants. Insoluble in water.

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35
Q

How are polysaccharides formed? Broken?

A

Formed by removing water (dehydration)

Broken down by adding water (hydrolysis)

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36
Q

Lipids

A

Fats and Oils
Composed of C,H, and O but H:O ratio if much greater than 2:1.
Consists of 3 fatty acids molecules bonded to a single glycerol backbone

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37
Q

Properities of Fatty Acids

A

Have long carbon chains that give the their hydrophocin (fatty) character and carboxylic acid groups that make them acidic

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38
Q

What needs to happen in order to form one fat molecule?

A

Three dehydration reactions

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39
Q

True/ False: Lipids form polymers

A

False.

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40
Q

Draw how glycerol+fatty acids synthesize a lipid

A

Draw on paper.

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41
Q

Lipids are the chief means of what? Why?

A

Food storage in animals.Because they release more energy per gram weight than any other class of biological compounds.

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42
Q

What roles do lipids play other than storage?

A

Provide insulation and protection against injury because they are a major component of adipose (fatty) tissue

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43
Q

List 5 lipid derivatives:

A
  1. Phospholipids
  2. Waxes
  3. Steroids
  4. Carotenoids
  5. Porphyrins
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44
Q

Phospholipids

A

Contain glycerol, two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and nitrogen-containing alcohol such as lecithin and cephalin

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45
Q

Waxes

A

Type of lipid
Esters of fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols. They are found as protective coatings on skin, fur, leaves of higher plants, and on the exoskeleton of many insects

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46
Q

Steroids

A

Have 3 fused cyclohexane rings and one fused cyclopentane ring.
Include: Cholesterol
Sex hormones: testosterone and estrogen
Corticosteroids

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47
Q

Cartenoids

A

Fatty, acid-like carbon chains containing conjugated double bonds and carrying six-membered carbon rings at each each

Pigments that produce red, yellow, orange, and brown colors

Examples: carotenes, and xanthophylls

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48
Q

Porphyrins

A

Also called tetrapyrroles
Contain 4 joined pyrrole rings. They are often complexed with metals
Example: heme- complexes with FE in hemoglobin.
Chlorophyll is complexed with Mg

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49
Q

Proteins are composed primarily of elements

A

C, H, O, and N but may also contain phosphorus and sulfur

Proteins are polymers of amino acids

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50
Q

Amino acids are joined by:

A

Peptide bonds through dehydration reactions

Chains of such bonds form a polypeptide

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51
Q

Primary structure

A

Sequence of amino acids

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52
Q

Secondary Structure

A

Based on hydrogen bonding between adjacent amino acids and results in beta-pleated sheets or alpha-helices

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53
Q

Tertiary Structure

A

3-D structure that is based on R-group interactions between adjacent amino acids.

Hydrophobic amino acids are crowded in the center with the hydrophilic amino acids at the outer edge.

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54
Q

What is a result of a tertiary structure?

A

Globular or fibrous proteins

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55
Q

Quaternary Structure

A

The interaction and joined of two or more independent polypeptide chain

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56
Q

Proteins can be classified on..

A

the basis of structure

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57
Q

Simple proteins

A

Composed o entirely amino acids

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58
Q

Albumins and globulins

A

Primarily globular in nature. Functional proteins that act as carriers or enzymes

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59
Q

Scleroproteins

A

Fibrous in nature and act as structural proteins. Example: Collagen

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60
Q

Conjugated proteins

A

These contain a simple protein portion plus at least one nonprotein fraction

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61
Q

Lipoproteins

A

Proteins bound to lipid

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62
Q

Mucoproteins

A

Proteins bound to carbohydrate

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63
Q

Chromoproteins

A

Proteins bounds to pigmented molecules

64
Q

Metaloproteins

A

Proteins complexed around a metal ion

65
Q

Nucleoproteins

A

Proteins containing histone or protamine (nuclear protein) bounds to nucleic acids

66
Q

Hormones

A

Proteins that function as chemical messengers secreted into the circulation.
Example: Insulin and ACTH

67
Q

Enzymes

A

Biological organic catalysts that act by increasing the rate of chemical reactions.
This is done by decreasing the activation energy
Example: Amylase, lipase, ATPase

68
Q

Structural proteins

A

Contribute to the physical support of a cell/tissue.
May be extracellular
example: Collagen in cartilage, bone, and tendons
May be intracellular
example: Proteins in cell membranes

69
Q

Transport proteins

A

Carriers of important materials
Example: Hemoglobin- carried oxygen in the circulation
Cytochromes- carry electrons during cellular respiration

70
Q

Antibodies

A

Proteins that bind to foreign particles (antigens), including disease-causing organisms that have entered the body.

71
Q

What is a catalyst?

A

Any substance that affects the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed

72
Q

Why are enzymes crucial to living things?

A

All living things must maintain a continuous controlled chemical activity. Enzymes regulate metabolism by speeding up or slowing down certain chemical reaction

73
Q

Coenzyme

A

Enzyme conjugated with a non-protein. Both parts much be present for the enzyme to function

74
Q

Selectivity of an enzyme

A

Enzymes are very selective, they may catalyze only one reaction or one specific class of closely related reactions

75
Q

Substrate

A

The molecule upon which an enzyme acts

76
Q

Active site

A

The area in an enzyme where the substrate binds

77
Q

3 facts about enzymes

A
  1. Do not alter eq. constant
  2. Not consumed by the reaction. They will appear both in the reactants and products
  3. Are pH and temp sensitive, with optimal activity at certain pH and temps.
78
Q

Lock and Key theory

A

Discounted theory
Substrate and enzyme fit together like lock and key.
Receptors are large proteins that contain a recognition site (lock) that is directly linked to transduction systems.
When a substrate (key) binds to it, a sequence of events in started.

79
Q

Induced fit theory

A

Describes the active site as having flexibility of shape. When the appropriate substrate comes in contact with the active site, the conformation of the active site changes to fit the substrate.

80
Q

Most enzyme reactions are reversible. Explain this

A

The product synthesized by an enzyme can be decomposed by the same enzyme.

81
Q

As the temp increases, the rate of enzyme activity…

A

increases

82
Q

What happens to an enzyme beyond optimal temperature?

A

Heat alters the shape of the active site of the enzyme molecule and deactivates it, leading to a drop in rate.

83
Q

What pH does maximal activity occur in humans?

A

usually pH 7.2.
exceptions:
pepsin: which words best in pH 2 (stomach acidity).
Pancreatic enzymes: work optimally in alkaline conditions of the small intestine (8.5).

84
Q

How do the concentrations of substrate and enzyme affect the reaction rate?

A
  • When the concentrations of both enzyme and substrate are low, many of the active sites on the enzyme are not occupied
  • Increase the substrate concentration will increase reaction rate until all of the active sites are occupied.
  • After this point, further increase in substrate concentration will not increase the reaction rate.
85
Q

Competitive inhibition

A
  • Even though the active site is specific for a certain substrate, it is possible for molecules that are similar to the substrate to bind to the active site.
  • This interferes with enzyme activity.
  • Called competitive inhibition because the enzyme is inhibited by the inactive substrate.
86
Q

Noncompetitive inhibitor

A
  • A substance that forms a strong covalent bonds with an enzyme and may not be displaced by addition of substrate
  • Irreversible!
  • May be bonded near or far from the active site (allosteric)
  • The interaction of an inhibitor at an allosteric site changes the structure of the enzyme so that the active site is also changed.
87
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Reaction that function to digest large molecules into smaller components.

88
Q

Lactase

A

Hydrolyzes lactose to the monosaccharides glucose and galactose

89
Q

Proteases

A

Degrade proteins to amino acids

90
Q

Lipase

A

Break down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol

91
Q

Synthesis reaction can be catalyzed by the

A

same enzymes as hydrolysis reactions but the directions of the reactions are reversed

92
Q

Synthesis is required for:

A

Growth, repair, regulation, protection, and production of food reserves such as fat and glycogen.

93
Q

Cofactors

A
  • Many enzymes require the incorporation of a nonprotein molecule to become active.
  • Can be metal cations
  • or small organic groups called coenzymes
    - coenzymes cannot be synthesized by the body and are obtained from the diet as vitamin derivatives.
94
Q

Prosthetic Groups

A

Cofactors that bind to the enzyme by strong covalent bonds

95
Q

5 points of the Cell Theory

A

1- All living things are composed of cells
2- The cell is the basic functional unit of life
3- The chemical reactions of life take place inside the cell
4- Cells arise only from pre-existing cells
5- Cell carry genetic information in the form of DNA. This genetic material is passed from parent cell to daughter cell.

96
Q

5 kingdoms of living things

A
  1. Monerans
  2. Protists
  3. Fungi
  4. Plants
  5. Animals
97
Q

Basic role of the cell membrane:

A

Encloses the cell and exhibits selective permeability; regulates the passage of materials in and out of the cell.

98
Q

What is the fluid mosiac model?

A

The cell membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded throughout. The lipid and many of the proteins can move freely within the membrane.

99
Q

How does the phospholipid bilayer form and how is it arranged?

A

Forms spontaneously. Phospholipid molecules are arranged in this way:

  • The long, non polar and hydrophobic fatty chains of carbon and hydrogen face each other
  • The phosphorous containing, polar and hydrophilic heads face outwards

Head: faces water inside and outside the cell
Tail: Face each other– water free region

100
Q

What is a plasma membrane permeable and impermeable to?

A
  • Small, non polar hydrophobic molecules such as oxygen
  • Small polar molecules such as water
  • Small charged materials pass through protein channels
  • Charged ions and large charged materials can only cross with carrier proteins
101
Q

Function of a nucleus

A

-Controls the activities of the cell, including cell division.

102
Q

What is the nucleus surrounded by?

A

Nuclear membrane

103
Q

What does the nucleus contain?

A

1- The DNA- which if complexed with structural proteins called histones to form chromosomes.
2- Nucleolus- Dense structure in the nucleus where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis occurs.

104
Q

Function of a ribosome

A

The sites of protein production

105
Q

Where are ribosomes produced?

A

Nucleolus

106
Q

What are the two types of ribosomes and where are they found?

A

Free ribosomes: found in the cytoplasm

Bound ribosomes: line the outer membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (rough)

107
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

A network of membrane-enclosed spaces involved in the transport of materials throughout the cell- especially materials destined to be secreted by the cell.

108
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Receives vesicles and their contents from the smooth ER, modifies them, repackages them into vesicles, and distributes them to the cell surface by exocytosis.

109
Q

Mitochondria

A

Composed of an outer and inn er phospholipid bilayer. Sites of aerobic respiration within the cell and hence the suppliers of energy.

110
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Where most of the cell’s metabolic activity occurs.

111
Q

Cyclosis

A

Streaming movement within the cell- how transport within the cytoplasm occurs

112
Q

Vacuoles/ Vesicles

A

Membrane-bound sacs involved in the transport and storage of materials that are ingested, secreted, processed or digested by the cell.

113
Q

Difference between vacuoles and vesicles

A

Pretty much have the same function

Vacuoles are larger than vesicles and are likely to be found in plant cells than in animal cells.

114
Q

Centrioles

A

Involved in spindle organization during cell division

115
Q

True/ False: Centrioles are bound by membranes:

A

False

116
Q

True/ False: Plant cells do not have centrioles:

A

True

117
Q

Centrosome

A

A region in animal cells where a pair of centrioles are oriented at right angles to each other

118
Q

Lysosomes

A

Membrane-bound vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzyme involved in intracellular digestion. Breakdown material ingested by the cell.

119
Q

Autolysis

A

An injured or dying tissue may commit suicide by rupturing the lysosome membrane and releasing its hydrolytic enzymes

120
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Supports the cell, maintains its shape, and function in cell motility. Is located in the cell cytoplasm.

121
Q

What is a cytoskeleton composed of?

A

Microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

122
Q

What are microtubules?

A

Hollow rods made up of polymerized tubulin that radiate throughout the cell and provide it with support. Provide a framework for organelle movement within the cell.

123
Q

True or False: centrioles are composed of microtubules

A

True

124
Q

Cilia and Flagella

A

Specialized arrangements of microtubules that extend from certain cells and are involved in cell motility and cytoplasmic movement

125
Q

Microfilaments

A

Solid rods of actin, important in cell movement as well as support

126
Q

An example of when microfilaments move materials across the plasma membrane

A

The contraction phase of cell division and in amoeboid movement

127
Q

5 ways that plant cells differ from animal cells

A
  1. No centrosome
  2. Presence of cell wall composed of cellulose
  3. Chloroplasts in many cells of green plants are sites of synthesis of organic compounds (photosynthesis)
  4. No lysosomes
  5. Many vacuoles/ mature plant cells usually contain one large vacuole
128
Q

Simple and facilitated diffusion are examples of?

A

passive transport

129
Q

What is active transport?

A

Movement of molecules against the concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins.

130
Q

Simple diffusion

A

Net movement of dissolved particles down their concentration gradients– from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. No external energy required.

131
Q

Osmosis

A

Simple diffusion of water from a region of low solute concentration to high solute concentration

132
Q

When the medium is hypertonic to the cell:

A

The cytoplasm of a cell has a lower solute concentration than the extracellular medium.

Water will flow out of the cell and call the cell to shrivel (plasmolysis).

133
Q

When the medium is hypotonic to the cell:

A

The extracellular environment is less concentrated than the cytoplasm of the cell, which causes the cell to swell and burst (lyse)

134
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Passive transport– net movement of dissolved particles down their concentration gradient through special channels or carrier proteins in the cell membrane. No external energy required.

135
Q

Active transport

A

Net movement of dissolved particles against their concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins. Required energy

136
Q

Carrier molecules

A

Help aid in the regulation of the cell’s internal content of ions and large molecules.

137
Q

4 types of carrier molecules

A
  1. Energy independent carriers
  2. Symporters
  3. Antiporters
  4. Pumps
138
Q

Energy independent carriers

A

Facilitate the movement of compounds along a concentration gradient

139
Q

Symporters

A

Move two or more ions or molecules

140
Q

Antiporters

A

Exchange one or more ions (or molecules) for another ion or molecule

141
Q

Pumps

A

Energy-dependent carriers (require ATP) for example: Na+-K+ pump

142
Q

Endocytosis
Pino
Phago

A

A process in which the cell membrane invaginates, forming a vesicle that contains extracellular medium

143
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Ingestion of fluids or small particles

144
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Engulfing of large particles. Particles may bind to receptors on the cell membrane before engulfed.

145
Q

Exocytosis

A

A vesicle within the cell fuses with the cell membrane and releases its contents to the outside

146
Q

Fusion of the vesicle within the cell can play an important role in:

A

cell growth and intercellular signalling

147
Q

True or False: in both endocytosis and exocytosis, the material never actually crosses through the cell membrane:

A

TRUE

148
Q

Circulation

A

Transportation of material within cells and throughout the body of a multicellular organism

149
Q

Brownian movement

A

Type of intracellular circulation– kinetic energy spreads small suspended particles throughout the cytoplasm of the cell

150
Q

Cyclosis or streaming

A

The circular motion of cytoplasm around the cell transports molecules

151
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

This provides channels throughout the cytoplasm and provides a direct continuous passageway from the plasma membrane to the nuclear membrane.

152
Q

Extracellular circluation

A

Movement of materials on a larger scale though the body of an organism. Examples: diffusion and the circulatory system

153
Q

Diffusion

A

When cells are in direct or close contact with the external env., diffusion serves as a sufficient means of transport for food and oxygen from the environment to the cells

154
Q

Circulatory systems are important in

A

complex animals whose cells are too far from the external environment to transport materials by diffusion

155
Q

What is the circulatory system?

A

vessels to transport fluid and a pump to drive circulation

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