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Psychology > Chapter 7: Thinking, Intelligence, And Language/ Chapter 8: Human Development > Flashcards

Chapter 7: Thinking, Intelligence, And Language/ Chapter 8: Human Development Flashcards

1
Q

Cognition

A

The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing

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2
Q

Artificial intelligence (AI)

A

A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of preforming activities that require intelligence when they are done by people

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3
Q

Thinking

A

The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically and creatively

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4
Q

Concepts

A

A mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics

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5
Q

Prototype model

A

A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a “family resemblance” with the item’s properties

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6
Q

Problem solving

A

The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available

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7
Q

Sub goals

A

Intermediate goals or problems to solve that put one into a better position for reaching a final goal or solution

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8
Q

Algorithms

A

Strategies- including formulas, instructions, and testing of all possible solutions- that guarantee a solution to a problem

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9
Q

Heuristics

A

Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer

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10
Q

Fixation

A

Using a prior strategy and failing to look at the problem from a fresh and new perspective

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11
Q

Functioned fixedness

A

Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing’s usual functions

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12
Q

Reasoning

A

The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusion

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13
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

Reasoning From specific observations to make generalizations

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14
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

Reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance

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15
Q

Decision making

A

The mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them

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16
Q

Loss aversion

A

The tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to attempting to acquire gains

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17
Q

Confirmation bias

A

The tendency to search for and use information that supports ones ideas rather than refutes them

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18
Q

Hindsight bias

A

The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately reported an outcome

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19
Q

Availability heuristic

A

A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

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20
Q

Base rate neglect

A

The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information

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21
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

The tendency to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearence or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information

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22
Q

Critical thinking

A

Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating evidence

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23
Q

Mindfulness

A

The state of being alert and mentally present for one’s everyday activities

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24
Q

Creativity

A

The ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to the problems

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25
Q

Divergent thinking

A

Thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem

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26
Q

Convergent thinking

A

Thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem

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27
Q

Intelligence

A

All-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience

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28
Q

Validity

A

The soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws from an experiment. In the realm of testing, the extent to which a test measures what its intended to measure

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29
Q

Reliability

A

The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance

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30
Q

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A

An individuals mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100

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31
Q

Normal distribution

A

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, with the majority of test scores (or other data) falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores (or other data) appearing towards the extremes

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32
Q

Culture-fair tests

A

Intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased

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33
Q

Gifted

A

Possessing high intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area

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34
Q

Intellectual disability

A

A condition of limited mental ability in which and individual has a low IQ, usually under 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life

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35
Q

Triarchic theory of intelligence

A

Sternberg’s theory theory that intelligence comes in three forms: analytic, practical, and creative

36
Q

Language

A

A form of communication-whether spoken, written, or signed- that is based on a system of symbols

37
Q

Syntax

A

A language’s rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences

38
Q

Semantics

A

The meaning of words and sentences in a particular language

39
Q

Chomsky’s biological theory of language

A

Evolution that occurred thousands of years ago physically prepared our bodies for language which gives us a distinct advantage in our ability to communicate over other species

40
Q

Enviromental influences

A

Language is a learned skill that is reinforced throughout development. (Ex. Baby gets rewarded for saying mama)

41
Q

Development

A

The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline

42
Q

Cross-sectional design

A

A research design in which a group of people is assessed on a psychological variable at one point in time

43
Q

Longitudinal design

A

A special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interests in multiple waves over time

44
Q

Nature

A

An individual’s biological inheritance, especially genes

45
Q

Nurture

A

An individual’s environmental and social experiences

46
Q

Resilience

A

A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times

47
Q

Germinal period

A

Weeks 1 and 2. Starts with conception. Fertilized egg is called a zygote. By the end of the first week the zygote has 100-150 cells. By the end of 2 weeks the mass of the cell has attached to the uterine wall.

48
Q

Embryonic period

A

Weeks 3-8. Zygote has become and embryo. Cell development rapidly increases and organs begin to form. Neural tube, which will become the spinal cord begins to develop. Heart begins to beat.

49
Q

Fetal period

A

Months 2 through 9. At 2 months the fetus is the size of a kidney bean and has begun to move around. At 4 months the fetus is 5 inches long and weighs around 5 ounces. The last 3 months of fetal period organ function and growth rapidly increase. When born babies are around 19 inches long and around 7 lbs.

50
Q

Teratogen

A

Any agent that causes a problem in prenatal development

51
Q

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

A

Piaget theorizes that we develop in 4 distinct stages, each of which involves making sense of the world in ways that is qualitatively different from the way before it

52
Q

Assimilation

A

An individual’s incorporation of new information into existing knowledge

53
Q

Accommodation

A

An individual’s adjustment of their schemas to new information

54
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A

Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants conduct and understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical) actions

55
Q

Object permanence

A

Piaget’s term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen, heard or touched. Ideally occurs in the sensorimotor stage

56
Q

Preoperational stage

A

Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about two to seven years of age, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought

57
Q

Concrete operational stage

A

Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7 years to 11 years of age, during which the individual uses operation and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations

58
Q

Conservation

A

The idea that operations are reversible (under the right circumstances). Such as pouring water from a tall thin glass to a short wide one, and the amount being the same.

59
Q

Formal operational stage

A

Piaget’s fourth and final stage of cognitive development, which begins at 11 to 15 years of age and continues through adult years; it features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypothesis about the future

60
Q

Executive function

A

Higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving

61
Q

Socioemotional processes

A

Involve changes in person’s social relationships, emotional life, and personality

62
Q

Temperment

A

An individuals behavior style and characteristic way of responding

63
Q

Infant attatchment

A

The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver

64
Q

Secure attatchment

A

The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the enviroment

65
Q

Trust vs. mistrust

A

Developmental period: infancy (birth-1.5 years). A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and a minimum amount of fear about the future. Infants basic needs are met by responsive, sensitive caregivers

66
Q

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

A

Developmental period: folder (1.5-3 years). After gaining trust in their caregivers infants start to discover that they have a will of their own. They assert their sense of autonomy, or independence. They realize their will. If infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt.

67
Q

Initiative vs. guilt

A

Development period: early childhood (3-5 years old). As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they are challenged more and need to develop more purposeful behavior to cope with these challenged. Children are now asked to assume more responsibility. Uncomfortable guilt feeling may arise, thought, if children are too irresponsible and made to feel too anxious.

68
Q

Industry vs. inferiority

A

Developmental period: middle to late childhood (6 years through puberty). At no other time are children more enthusiastic than at the end of early childhood’s period of expansive imagination. As children move into the elementary school years, they direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. The danger at this stage involves feeling incompetent and unproductive.

69
Q

Identity vs. identity confusion

A

Developmental period: adolescence (10 to 20 years). Individuals are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. An important dimension is the exploration of of alternative solutions to roles. Career exploration is important.

70
Q

Intimacy vs. isolation

A

Early adulthood (20s-30s). Individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships with others. Erickson described intimacy as finding oneself yet losing oneself in another person.

71
Q

Generativity vs. stagnation

A

Middle adulthood (40s-50s). A chief concern is to assist the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives.

72
Q

Integrity vs. despair

A

Late adulthood (60s-). Individuals look back and evaluate what they have done with their lives. The retrospective glances can be either positive (integrity) or negative (despair)

73
Q

Authoritarian parenting

A

A restrictive, punitive parenting style in which parents exhort the child to follow the parents directions and to value hard work and effort

74
Q

Authoritative parenting

A

A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior

75
Q

Neglectful parenting

A

A parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child’s life

76
Q

Permissive parenting

A

A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child’s behavior

77
Q

Emerging adulthood

A

The transitional period from adolescence to adulthood, spanning approximately 18 to 25 years of age

78
Q

Gender

A

The social and psychological aspects of being male, female, both, or neither

79
Q

Gender identity

A

A person’s inner concepts of themselves in relation to the ideas of being male, female, both, or neither

80
Q

Sexual orientation

A

The direction of an individuals erotic interest, today viewed as a continuum from exclusively male-female relations to exclusive same gender relations

81
Q

Gender roles

A

Roles that reflect society’s expectation of how people of different genders should think, act, and feel

82
Q

Gender similarities hypothesis

A

Hyde’s proposition that people of different genders are much more similar than they are different

83
Q

Moral development

A

Involves changes that occur with age in people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding the principles and values that guide them as they interact with others

84
Q

Preconventional (morality)

A

The person’s moral reasoning is based primarily on the consequences of a behavior and on punishments and rewards from the external world. (Ex. Not wanting to go to jail)

85
Q

Conventional (morality)

A

The person abides by standards learned from parents or society’s laws. At this level a person might reason that someone should follow the law not matter what.

86
Q

Postconventional (morality)

A

The person recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then developed and increasingly personal moral code. (Ex. Breaking a law to help a person you love. Or not following a law because you don’t believe it’s just)

87
Q

Prosocial behavior

A

Behavior that is intended to benefit other people

Psychology (13 decks)

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