Chapter 8

Question 1

semantic memory

Answer 1

the memory
for factual knowledge

Question 2

e explicit or
declarative memory.

Answer 2

semantic and episodic memory

Question 3

iumplicit or procedural memory

Answer 3

no conscience, like when you need to drive

Question 4

where is the episodic memory?

Answer 4

hippocampus and medial temporal lobe,

Question 5

where are learning skills in the brain?

Answer 5

motor cortex

Question 6

mnemonic strategies.

Answer 6

Setting the ABCs to music to memorize the alphabet.
Using rhymes to remember rules of spelling like “i before e except after c”
Forming sentences out of the first letter of words in order (acrostics), such as “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally,” to remember the order of operations in algebra.

Question 7

Bauer et al. (1987) concluded from their research that children aged 17-23 months
remember events in a certain order. In their experiment they asked children to give a teddy
bear a bath in a certain order, and even after six weeks the order was repeated correctly,
without prior modelling. Since taking a bath is a familiar ritual in childhood, Bauer et al.
investigated whether they got the same results if they let the child perform an unfamiliar task,
like building a rattle.

Answer 7

They found the same results and stated that these young children were
sensitive to causal relationships and that this means that young children have
representations of purposeful ordering, just like adults.

Question 8

pupillometry

Answer 8

For adults, pupil dilation is larger to previously seen items than to novel items, providing an index of episodic recognition memory

Question 9

‘infantile amnesia’

Answer 9

Autobiographical memories of events before the third year usually don’t occur

Question 10

explanations for infantile amnesia

Answer 10

She states that infants create autobiographical
memories, but that they can’t retrieve them. Freud’s (1938) explanation for infantile amnesia
was that memories were present, but that they were suppressed so that they do not end up
in the consciousness. However, if scary/bad memories are suppressed to protect the
individual, why aren’t positive memories remembered?
Another explanation is that early memories are coded in terms of physical action or pure
sensation. You can’t retrieve them because they are stored in a different format to later
memories that are based on linguistic storage. Goswami supports this view, because girls,
who are more linguistically developed than boys, also have earlier memories.

Question 11

Language therefore plays a key role in infantile amnesia.. explain

Answer 11

Simcock and Hayne (2002) investigated this and found that children also had non-verbal
access to memories, but that the inability to translate these memories into language
experiences meant that the memories were not stored in the autobiographical memory

Question 12

Recognition memory

Answer 12

is the ability to recognize something that is familiar and has been experienced before. It is part of implicit memory. The recognition memory is found in other animals as well and is present early in life. Because of this, there is a discussion as to whether it is an actual cognitive ability, or whether it is just a measure of processing.

Question 12

Recognition memory

Answer 12

is the ability to recognize something that is familiar and has been experienced before. It is part of implicit memory. The recognition memory is found in other animals as well and is present early in life. Because of this, there is a discussion as to whether it is an actual cognitive ability, or whether it is just a measure of processing.

Question 13

Recognition memory is measured by …

Answer 13

showing children a series of pictures and then measuring how many they consider as familiar after a certain period of time. This is the traditional measurement method.

Question 14

The fragment completion task -

Answer 14

is another way to measure the implicit memory based on a word test or a picture test. Fragments of a picture or word are shown and the participant is asked to complete it or retrieve it (recall).

Question 15

When is the ability to create different memories for unusual events fully developed?

Answer 15

Around 4 years old

Question 16

maternal elaborateness -

Answer 16

it plays a key role in the development of the ability to store memories. It provides more detailed and organised memories and a better sense of time. Moreover, if the child and the mother disagree, the child comes to understand that everyone experiences an event from their own perspective

Question 17

Eye-witness memory

Answer 17

is the memory for events that may not seem to be significant at the time that they were experienced. It is a special kind of episodic memory.

Question 18

The children had to make a puzzle in a room and then a man came in and messed around and said he was looking for the headmaster. He then stole a handbag and left the room. The children were more accurate and less sensitive to suggestions than children in the control group (same situation, only the man didn’t steal a bag. Conclusion?-

Answer 18

This indicates that the eyewitness testimony of a young child is no less accurate than that of an adult.

Question 19

At what age are children more sensitive to leading questions?

Answer 19

At age 3. At age 5, not so much. But.. One hypothesis about the link between children’s knowledge of routines, information from scripts and their eye-witness recall is that children who have more episodic knowledge about certain events should be less sensitive to leading questions

Question 20

Who has a more detailed memory, girls or boys?

Answer 20

girls

Question 21

The reason we think that children under the age of 5 only rely on the visuospatial sketchpad..

Answer 21

is that children are not susceptible to effects related to the coding of speech sounds in the working memory. This is necessary for processing via the phonological loop and because it is not present, it is assumed that children use the visuospatial sketchpad.

Question 22

Conrad (1971) investigated this and used some kind of memory game. Children aged 3 to 11 years were shown a series of pictures. Then a complete set of pictures was shown and the child had to indicate which picture had just been shown. Conrad used two sets of pictures: one with pictures of words that are phonologically similar (rat, cat, etc.) and one with pictures that are not similar. Conclusion, difference between adults and children:

Answer 22

Adults have difficulty with this task when using the series of pictures with similar words, because they store the words verbally and the words sound alike. Conrad found that only the 3- to 5-year-olds showed no difference in the processing of both sets. This shows that they are not yet processing the images via the phonological loop. Children aged 6 years and above showed a longer memory span for the similar series than for the “sounds similar” series.

Question 23

In order to investigate whether younger children actually made use of the visuospatial sketchpad, Hitch et al. (1988) tested whether these children had difficulty with remembering pictures that are visually similar (pen, fork, key, etc.; all the same shape). He showed pictures and asked them to repeat them in the same order. Difference between the 5 and 10 year olds?

Answer 23

The 5-year-olds had the most difficulty with the set of visually similar pictures and the 10-year-olds had the most difficulty with the pictures that depicted a long / difficult word (kangaroo, umbrella). So 5-year-old children use the visuospatial sketchpad and 10-year-old children use the phonological loop.

Question 24

The phonological confusability effect or phonological similarity effect-

Answer 24

means that words that sound similar are much more difficult to remember than words that do not sound similar.

Question 25

the word length effect

Answer 25

the effect that long words are more difficult to remember than short words

Question 26

Children who go to school learn to rely increasingly on language because they have to name things and this explains why the memory span is growing rapidly around the age of..

Answer 26

7 years

Question 27

production deficiency

Answer 27

The idea is that the mnemonic strategy of rehearsal is developed once children go to school and rely increasingly on language. Younger children do not do this yet. They are capable of using the strategy, but they simply do not want to use the strategy.

Question 28

High associativity automatically leads to..

Answer 28

the structure of recall. Children do these unconsciously.

Question 29

In addition, the use of strategies was significantly correlated with successful recall. Memory capacity was no predictor of successful recall. From this it was concluded that..

Answer 29

the use of strategies by children is an important factor in the development of memory.

Question 30

novice-expert distinction

Answer 30

The level of prior knowledge has an impact on coding and storing incoming information. Experts organise their knowledge differently from novices because of the knowledge they already have.

Question 31

Studies with autistic children show that their field of expertise induces activity in the..

Answer 31

fusiform gyrus but no activity to human faces, whereas a typically developed child shows the exact opposite