Chapter 8

Question 1

What is a group?

Answer 1

A collection of three or more people who interact with each other and are interdependent, relying on one another to meet their needs and goals.

Question 2

What is a two-person relationship called?

Answer 2

A dyad or pair

Question 3

What are the two types of group processes?

Answer 3

1. Intragroup processes – Occur within a group.
2. Intergroup processes – Occur between two different groups.

Question 4

Why do people join groups?

Answer 4

->To fulfill basic human needs.

->To help define their identity.

->To motivate involvement in social change.

Question 5

What are social norms in a group?

Answer 5

Expectations for how group members should behave.

Question 6

What are social roles in a group?

Answer 6

Shared expectations about how certain people in the group are supposed to behave (e.g., mother, friend, professor).

Question 7

What experiment shows the impact of social roles?

Answer 7

Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment demonstrated how behavior can become extreme when role-playing.

Question 8

What is group cohesiveness?

Answer 8

Qualities that bind group members together and promote liking among them.

Question 9

What is group diversity?

Answer 9

The degree to which group members differ in age, sex, beliefs, and opinions.

Question 10

Which type of group tends to make better decisions?

Answer 10

More diverse groups

Question 11

What is social facilitation?

Answer 11

The tendency for people to:

->Perform better on simple tasks.
->Perform worse on complex tasks.

…when in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated.

Question 12

Why does social facilitation occur?

Answer 12

The presence of others increases physiological arousal

->When that arousal exists, it is easier to do something simple, and more difficult to do something complex or new

Question 13

What experiment first demonstrated social facilitation?

Answer 13

Norman Triplet, 1898 — children were asked to wind up fishing line on a reel, either by themselves or in presence of other children (children performed better in front of others)

Question 14

What animal study supports social facilitation?

Answer 14

Cockroach Maze Study -

->In a simple maze, roaches performed better with an audience.

->In a complex maze, roaches performed better alone.

Question 15

What are the three theories that explain the role of arousal in social facilitation?

Answer 15

1. Alertness/Vigilance – Presence of others makes us more alert.
2. Evaluation Apprehension – Fear of being evaluated.
3. Distraction Hypothesis – Others distract us from the task.

Question 16

What is social loafing?

Answer 16

The tendency to:

->Perform worse on simple tasks.
->Perform better on complex tasks.

…when in the presence of others and individual performance cannot be evaluated.

->When our performance in a group cannot be identified, we become more relaxed.

Question 17

What is the Ringelmann effect?

Answer 17

->Social loafing is an extension of the Ringelmann effect

->individual output declines on pooled/group tasks - our individual performance cannot be determined

EX. clapping at a concert

Question 18

What is the Collective Effort Model?

Answer 18

People exert effort in group tasks when they believe:

1. Their efforts are identifiable.
2. Their efforts will make a difference.
3. They will experience positive outcomes.

Question 19

Who is more likely to engage in social loafing?

Answer 19

-> Men than in women (relational interdependence - the tendency to think of oneself in terms of relationships with close others)

-> More common in individualist cultures than in collectivist cultures.
▪ (independent self and interdependent self)

Question 20

Describe the process of social loafing and social facilitation

Answer 20

->Presence of others

SF:
->Individual efforts can be evaluated
->Alertness, Evaluation apprehension, Distraction conflict
->Arousal
->Enhanced performance on simple tasks
->Impaired performance on complex tasks

SL:
->Individual efforts cannot be evaluated
->No evaluation apprehension
->Relaxation
->Impaired performance on simple tasks
->Enhanced performance on complex tasks

LOOK ON PHONE

Question 21

What is deindividualization?

Answer 21

-> The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people are in a group, leading to impulsive and deviant acts.

-> “Mob mentality” - Getting lost in the crowd, act in way not in line with personal moral standards

EX. Mob guy had motorbike stolen and went up to someone in mall and boy said that looks like your bike I think those two teen boys stole it and the boys were beaten to death

Question 22

When is deindividuation more likely to happen?

Answer 22

On Halloween, when individuals are often:

->In groups
->Wearing costumes or masks (providing anonymity)

Question 23

What factors contribute to deindividuation?

Answer 23

1. Anonymity – Being less distinguishable in a group (enhanced by uniforms, masks, etc.)
2. Accountability – Feeling less accountable for actions as less likely to be identified in group setting
3. Decreased self-awareness – have less of a sense of ourselves as individuals

Question 24

How does deindividuation affect social norms?

Answer 24

People become more likely to follow group norms, whether those norms are positive or negative.

Question 25

What is Social Identity Theory (Reicher)?

Answer 25

->The theory that deindividuation leads to a change in identity rather than a loss of identity. ->We strive to enhance our self-esteem which is made up of a personal and social identity

Question 26

According to Social Identity Theory, what increases self-esteem?

Answer 26

Affiliating with successful groups.

Question 27

What happens when self-esteem is threatened?

Answer 27

People are more likely to show: ->In-group favoritism ->Out-group derogation

Question 28

Do groups always make better decisions than individuals?

Answer 28

No – Group interactions can sometimes inhibit good problem-solving.

Question 29

What is process loss?

Answer 29

Any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem-solving.

Question 30

What is a common cause of process loss?

Answer 30

Focusing mainly on information that is already known by the group rather than sharing unique information.

Question 31

The tendency for groups to fail to consider important unique information can be overcome if:

Answer 31

1. Identifying who knows what. 2. Taking the time to discuss unshared information.

Question 32

What is groupthink?

Answer 32

A style of thinking where maintaining group cohesiveness is prioritized over realistic assessment of facts, often resulting in poor decisions. EX. - Doomed Challenger space shuttle launch (some NASA engineers were concerned but were dismissed so 7 astronauts died before take off) - Escalating Vietnam war (we are good, they are bad, if you’re fighting for good you are going to win) - Titanic (”not even God could sink this ship” = you’re not vulnerable so not making good decisions as nothing bad will happen to you)

Question 33

What are the antecedents (factors that lead to) groupthink?

Answer 33

1. The group is highly cohesive: - The group is valued and attractive, and people very much want to be members 2. Group isolation: - The group is isolated, protected from hearing alternative viewpoints - Closed mindedness 3. A directive leader: - The leader controls the discussion and makes his or her wishes known 4. High stress: - The members perceive threats to the group 5. Poor decision-making procedures: - No standard methods to consider alternative viewpoints

Question 34

What are common symptoms of groupthink?

Answer 34

1. Illusion of invulnerability: - The group feels it is invincible and can do no wrong 2. Belief in the moral correctness of the group: - “God is on our side” so groups actions are morally justified 3. Stereotyped views of out-group: - Opposing sides are viewed in a simplistic, stereotyped manner 4. Self-censorship: - People decide themselves not to voice contrary opinions so as not to “rock the boat” 5. Direct pressure on dissenters to conform: - If people do voice contrary opinions, they are pressured by others to conform to the majority 6. Illusion of unanimity: - An illusion is created that everyone agrees, for example, by not calling on people known to disagree 7. Mindguards: - Group members protect the leader from contrary viewpoints

Question 35

What are the consequences of groupthink?

Answer 35

->Incomplete survey of alternatives ->Failure to examine risks ->Poor information search ->Lack of contingency plans

Question 36

What are 6 ways to reduce groupthink?

Answer 36

1. Remain impartial 2. Seek outside opinions 3. Create subgroups 4. Seek anonymous opinions 5. Recruit diverse members 6. Increase awareness about groupthink (training)

Question 37

What is group polarization?

Answer 37

The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of their members.

Question 38

What is the risky shift?

Answer 38

The tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than individuals would make alone.

Question 39

What are the two main reasons group polarization occurs?

Answer 39

1. Persuasive arguments – Exposure to additional arguments strengthens initial views 2. Social comparison - people adopting similar but more extreme views in order to be liked by the group

Question 40

What are the two ways leaders can emerge?

Answer 40

1. Formally (elected) 2. Informally (arising naturally over time)

Question 41

What is the Great Person Theory or Trait Model?

Answer 41

->The theory that leaders are born, not made – some people have key personality traits that naturally make them good leaders. ->Research shows a weak relationship between personality characteristics and leadership

Question 42

What is integrative complexity?

Answer 42

The ability to: ->Recognize multiple perspectives ->Combine ideas for balanced decisions ->Adapt to new situations

Question 43

What are the two leadership styles?

Answer 43

1. Transactional leaders ->set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them, focused on managing tasks, maintain order, make sure tasks are completed EX. manager give bonus for meeting goals 2. Transformational leaders ->inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals, motivate and inspire team to meet goals, encourage creativity, focus on long term goals EX. manager who encourages their team to think outside of the box

Question 44

What is Fiedler’s Contingency Theory of Leadership?

Answer 44

->theory that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-oriented or relationship-oriented the leader is, and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group. ->Leaders effectiveness depends on 2 factors: how much they emphasize tasks or relationships

Question 45

What is a task-oriented leader?

Answer 45

A leader who prioritizes productivity and deadlines over relationships or how other feel.

Question 46

What is a relationship-oriented leader?

Answer 46

A leader who prioritizes team dynamics and worker relationships over strict task completion.

Question 47

In what type of control situations do task oriented and relationship oriented leaders thrive?

Answer 47

TOL: In high control or low control situations. -> High control- excellent interpersonal relations; leader’s position is considered powerful; Structured and well defined tasks (happy workers) EX. well established company with defined roles -> Low Control- Poor interpersonal relationships; ill-defined tasks; leader takes charge; brings order to a chaotic and ill-defined environment ROL: In moderate control situations. ->balance between task structure and relationships is required

Question 48

What are agentic traits?

Answer 48

Traits like assertiveness, dominance, and confidence ->traditionally linked to men.

Question 49

What are communal traits?

Answer 49

Traits like warmth, helpfulness, and caring –> traditionally linked to women.

Question 50

What is assumed when women act communally or agenicly?

Answer 50

- Women who act in accordance with social norms by being more communal may be seen as having less leadership potential than those who act more agentic. - By the same token, women who are agentic in their leadership styles are derogated for defying social norms. - Women who use a more transformational leadership style may still be evaluated negatively by male subordinates as they may be seen as “too soft”

Question 51

What is the glass cliff?

Answer 51

->The tendency for women to be promoted into leadership roles during crises, when the risk of failure is highest. (more likely to be blamed even if situation is already dire when they are hired)

Question 52

What is a social dilemma?

Answer 52

A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone.

Question 53

What is a common resource dilemma?

Answer 53

When shared resources are depleted through overuse. EX. Farmer’s share a pasture and all put more animals in there so pasture is over grazed and unusable

Question 54

What is a public good dilemma?

Answer 54

- when a public good or service needs to be sustained over time - If enough people contribute to the common pool, others can benefit because the resource will be available to them if they do not contribute EX. Always assume blood will be there if you need a transfusion but you’ve never given blood yourself

Question 55

What is the prisoner’s dilemma?

Answer 55

->Two people may choose to either cooperate with each other or compete with each other -> A game in which two players must each choose one of two options, pitting individual gain against group gain. -> The outcome for each player depends on their combined choices. -> The dilemma is that the choice which seems best from the viewpoint of most individual players will not lead to the best outcome if both players choose it -> The best outcome for both players is to choose a cooperative strategy, even though the competitive strategy seems more appealing.

Question 56

What encourages cooperation in social dilemmas?

Answer 56

-> Playing against a friend. -> Expecting to interact with their partner in the future. -> Playing in small groups rather than large.

Question 57

What is the tit-for-tat strategy when increasing cooperation in a social dilemma?

Answer 57

- A means of encouraging cooperation by first acting cooperatively, and then responding the way your opponent did on the previous turn. EX. They cooperate you cooperate, they compete you compete

Question 58

Why is the tit-for-tat strategy effective/what does it communicate?

Answer 58

1. Willing to cooperate (show willingness by cooperating first) 2. A defense against exploitation (not going to be taken advantage of)

Question 59

What are some other ways to increase cooperation?

Answer 59

-> create a social norm of cooperating by repeatedly doing so. Eventually, every group member begins to cooperate, and all benefit in the end -> activating others moral motives with smaller groups EX. more likely to toss trash out on the highway then on your local street

Question 60

Are threats an effective method of reducing conflict?

Answer 60

No as in the long run they: ->erode trust ->Create fearful atmosphere that can lead to cycle of conflict ->Decrease collaboration

Question 61

What is the best way to resolve conflict?

Answer 61

Communication – as long as it focuses on finding solutions rather than making threats.

Question 62

What is negotiation?

Answer 62

A form of communication where both sides offer and counter-offer until a solution is reached.

Question 63

What is an integrative solution in negotiation?

Answer 63

A solution where each side makes concessions on less important issues to gain on more important issues. ->Can use mediators

Question 64

Is online or face-to-face communication better? Why?

Answer 64

Face-to-face communication is better as it allows for clearer tone, body language, and emotional cues.