Chapter 9 Flashcards
(19 cards)
reciprocal altruism
This theory states that adaptations for providing benefits to nonrelatives can evolve as long as the delivery of benefits is returned or reciprocated at some point in the future.
The problem of reciprocal altruism is similar to a game known as the __________
“prisoner’s dilemma.”
The prisoner’s dilemma is:
a hypothetical situation in which two people have been thrown in prison for a crime they are accused of committing together and of which they are indeed guilty. The prisoners are held in separate cells so that they can’t talk to each other. Police interrogate both of the prisoners, trying to get each to rat on the other. If neither one implicates the other, the police will be forced to set them both free for lack of evidence. This is the cooperative strategy from the prisoners’ perspective; it is the strategy that would be best for both of them
Food Sharing in Vampire Bats
the closer the association between the bats—the more often they were sighted together—the more likely they were to give blood to each other. Only bats that were sighted in close proximity at least 60 percent of the time received blood from that compatriot. Not a single bat gave blood to another bat with whom he associated for a lesser period of time.
Chimpanzee Politics
Cooperative alliances are central to the lives of chimpanzees. As part
of the bid for alpha status, a male will bite or chase a female if she is found associating with an opponent. When she is no longer associating with the opponent, the male will be extremely friendly
toward her and her infants.
Social Contract Theory
relationships involving reciprocal exchange are vulnerable to cheating—when people take a benefit without paying the cost of reciprocation
The Detection of Prospective Altruists
According to evolutionary psychologist William Michael Brown, humans have evolved another adaptation to solve this problem: the ability to detect the genuineness of altruistic acts
current evidence points to two distinct adaptations that facilitate the evolution of cooperation:
(1) the detection of cheaters (those who take benefits without paying costs)
(2) the detection of altruists (those whose motivation is genuine) and those likely to be good reciprocity partners, as indicated by their apparent good health.
Indirect Reciprocity Theory
People who perform altruistic acts advertise a propensity for generosity and cooperation. Others may glean this information either through direct observation of altruistic acts or through word of mouth (gossip, reputation). Consequently, they become attractive as excellent cooperation partners.
need-based transfer systems
In risky or volatile environments, forming special types of friendships
can be a form of social insurance against catastrophe.
Costly Signaling Theory
The logic behind costly signaling is that individuals display acts of altruism—giving substantial gifts, donating to charity, throwing lavish dinners—to signal that they are excellent potential allies.
The fitness benefits from costly signaling could come in several forms:
(1) being preferentially chosen by others for cooperative relationships
(2) increased levels of cooperation within those relationships
(3) higher status and reputation within the group, which could lead to a host of benefits, including higher-quality mating opportunities
positive assortment
people preferentially associate with and form relationships with a subset of other individuals.
Emotions Involved in Cooperation
gratitude, anger, guilt
Should Altruism Be Defined According to the Cost Incurred?
According to existing evolutionary theories about the evolution of altruism, altruism is not considered to have occurred unless the individual incurs a cost. In kin selection, the person incurs a cost to the self that is ofset by the benefit gained by a genetic relative.
In reciprocal altruism, the person incurs a cost to the self that is later offset by a benefit gained when the friend returns the favor. In short, altruism has been defined by the costs the altruist incurs.
How might a person act to increase the odds of becoming irreplaceable?
- Promote a reputation that highlights one’s unique or exceptional attributes
- Be motivated to recognize personal attributes that others value but that they have difficulty getting from other people
- Cultivate specialized skills that increase irreplaceability
- Preferentially seek out people or groups that value what you have to offer and what others in the group tend to lack—groups in which one’s assets will be most appreciated
- Avoid social groups in which one’s unique attributes are not valued or in which one’s unique attributes are easily provided by others
- Drive of rivals who ofer benefits that you alone formerly provided; people seem to be especially sensitive to “newcomers” who may duplicate your skill set, interfere with your existing alliances, or threaten to impose costs on your well-functioning group.
friendship niches; friendship slots to fill
- Number of slots already filled.
- Evaluate who emits positive externalities.
- Select friends who are good at reading your mind.
- Select friends who consider you to be irreplaceable.
- Select friends who want the same things that you want.
Costs and Benefits of Friendship
Friends offer us food and shelter. They take care of us when we are ill. They ofer advice in troubled times. They introduce us to potential mates. Despite the potential benefits, however, friends sometimes become our competitors or rivals.
cooperative coalitions
alliances of more than two individuals for the purpose of collective action to achieve a particular goal
