chapter 9: Thinking and Language

Question 1

cognition

Answer 1

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Question 2

concept

Answer 2

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
concepts simplify our thinking

Question 3

prototypes

Answer 3

a mental image or best example of a category. matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

And the more closely something matches our prototype of a concept—such as a bird or a German—the more readily we recognize it as an example of the concept

Question 4

algorithm (more complex and tedious than heuristics) (less error prone than heuristics)

Answer 4

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. contrasts with the usually speedier-but also more error-prone- use of heuristics

Question 5

heuristic (faster,and simpler than algorithms, but also more error prone)

Answer 5

a simple thinking strateogy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error prone than algorithms

Question 6

insight

Answer 6

a sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Question 7

problem solving strateogies for finding apple juice in the grocery store

Answer 7

trial and error- wander around randomly to find it
algorithms- create a methodical path to make sure you check every single aisle
heuristics- check only related aisles

Question 8

confirmation bias

Answer 8

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. this predisposes us to verify rather than challenge our hypotheses

Question 9

fixation

obstacle to problem solving

Answer 9

an inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective

ex: the match stick problem is an inability to arrange six match sticks to form 4 equilateral triangles

Question 10

mental set

obstacle to problem solving

Answer 10

an example of fixation

our tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

a mental set predisposes how we think

Question 11

intuition

Answer 11

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
gut feeling

Question 12

availability heuristic

Answer 12

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
exapmle- thinking planes are more dangerous than car crashes bc we remember plain crashes as being more catastrophic

Question 13

fixation

Answer 13

such as mental set, may prevent us from taking the fresh perspective that would lead to a solution

Question 14

overconfidence

Answer 14

when we typically are more confident than correct or over estimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgment

Question 15

belief perseverance

Answer 15

clinging to ones initial conceptions after ones beliefs have been disproven

Question 16

framing

Answer 16

sways decisions and judgement by influencing the way an issue is posed, it can also influence beneficial decisions

Question 17

powers of intuition

Answer 17

• intuition is analysis that turns into habit
• intuition is usually adaptive, allowing for quick reactions
• intuition is huge
• critical thinkers are often guided by intuition

Question 18

creativity

Answer 18

the ability to make new and valuable ideas

Question 19

convergent thinking

Answer 19

narrowing the available solutions to a problem and coming up with the best possible solution

Question 20

divergent thinking

Answer 20

expanding the total solutions for a problem, leads to creative thinking that diverges into different directions

Question 21

5 major components of creative thinking

Answer 21

• expertise
• imaginative thinking skills
• a venturesome personality
• intrinsic motivation
• a creative environment

Question 22

to develop creativity

Answer 22

• develop your expertise
• allow time for incubation
• set aside time for the mind to roam freely
• experience other cultures and ways of thinking

Question 23

animals common cognitive skills

Answer 23

• use concepts and numbers
• display insight
• use tools and transmit culture
• voice recognition in baboon troops
• mirror self recognition
• display learning, remembering, and cooperation in elephants

Question 24

language

Answer 24

our spoken, written, or singed words and how we combine them to communicate meaning

• used to transmit civilizations knowledge from one generation to the next
• connect humans

Question 25

phonemes

Answer 25

in language, the small distinctive sound unit

Question 26

morphemes

Answer 26

in language, the smallest unit that carries any meaning | -a word or part of a word (prefix, suffix, etc)

Question 27

grammar

Answer 27

in language, a system of rules that enable us to communicate with and understand each other

Question 28

semantics

Answer 28

set of rules for deriving meaning from sound

Question 29

syntax

Answer 29

set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

Question 30

receptive language

Answer 30

an infants ability to understand what is said to them around 4 months

Question 31

production language

Answer 31

an infants ability to produce words beginning around 10 months

Question 32

babbling stage

Answer 32

(beginning at 4 months) stage of speech development when babies begin to utter various random sounds

Question 33

one-word stage

Answer 33

(1-2 years old) when children begin talking in single word sentences

Question 34

two-word stage

Answer 34

(beginning at 2 years old) stage when speech development has advanced and children talk in two word sentences

Question 35

telegraphic speech

Answer 35

early sage when children begin to talk and sound like a telegram and utter mostly nouns and verbs

Question 36

universal language

Answer 36

all human languages contain verbs, noun, and adjectives as the building blocks for grammar

Question 37

aphasia

Answer 37

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing understanding)

Question 38

brocas area

Answer 38

controls language expression- an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Question 39

wernicke's area

Answer 39

controls language reception- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression. usually in the left temporal lobe.

Question 40

linguistic determinism

Answer 40

whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

Question 41

category

Answer 41

boundaries begin to blur as movement from prototypes occurs

Question 42

what are the three problem solving strategies

Answer 42

algorithm heuristic insight

Question 43

representativeness heuristic

Answer 43

rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match particular prototype; includes stereotypes and social judgments

Question 44

Perils and powers of intuition

Answer 44

is frozen in a stereotype usually adaptive , enabling quick reactions (learned associations surface as "gut" feelings is huge! (critical thinkers often guided by intuition)

Question 45

Smart critical thinkers listen to...

Answer 45

the unseen mind, and then evaluate evidence, tests conclusions and plans for the future

Question 46

creativity is supported by

Answer 46

aptitude or the ability to learn intelligence working memory

Question 47

other animals use______, _______, and ________ and they transmit skills from one generation to the next

Answer 47

concepts, numbers and tools

Question 48

What are the three building blocks of spoken language?

Answer 48

phonemes morphemes grammar

Question 49

How many languages are there worldwide?

Answer 49

700+ and each are structurally very different

Question 50

Chomsky argued that all languages share

Answer 50

basic elements called a universal grammar | theorized humans are born with predisposition to learn grammar rules

Question 51

Infants can recognize and learn simple sentences at ___ months old by discerning word breaks and analyzing which syllables most often go together

Answer 51

7

Question 52

what are the troubles of learning a second language as an adult?

Answer 52

have an accent of their native language | difficulty mastering the new grammar

Question 53

In language processing, the brain operates by...

Answer 53

dividing its mental functions into smaller tasks

Question 54

evidence from bilingual speakers suggest people think ___________ in different languages

Answer 54

differently

Question 55

expanding language _________ ability to think

Answer 55

expands

Question 56

Bilingual speakers use executive control over language to

Answer 56

inhibit attention to irrelevant information