Chapters 1-3 Flashcards
(161 cards)
1
Q
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of using self-report measures and of using observational measures in social psychological research.
A
One advantage of using self-report measures in social psychological research is that the collection of quantitative data allows for more opportunities for statistical information. A second advantage is that the use of self-report measures can be very time efficient. A disadvantage of using a self-report measure is that it can distort research findings as people want to present their best selves. Another disadvantage to this approach is that it does not allow researchers to observe and understand the participant.
An advantage of using observational measures in social psychological research is that researchers are able to observe the actions and feelings of participants. This method also gives researchers the opportunity to see the participants act like their normal selves rather than their best selves. A disadvantage of observational research is that it can be quite time-consuming. A second disadvantage is that like using self-report measures, individuals can still distort research by presenting their best selves under observation.
2
Q
Why is ethics an important issue in social psychological research?
A
Ethical issues are particularly important in social psychology because of the use of deception in some research.
3
Q
What do social psychologists use descriptive research to reveal?
a) general patterns and trends in the variables of interest.
b) cause-and-effect relationships between independent and dependent variables.
c) associations between two or more variables of interest.
d) the strength of an observed effect.
A
A
4
Q
correlation coefficient
A
a statistical measure of the strength and direction of the association between two variables
5
Q
correlation coefficient
A
a statistical measure of the strength and direction of the association between two variables
6
Q
What is the purpose of experimental research? List the characteristics of an experiment.
A
The purpose of experimental research is to examine cause-and-effect relationships. They have two essential characteristics:
- The researcher has control over the experimental. procedures, manipulating the variables of interest while ensuring uniformity elsewhere.
- Participants in the study are randomly assigned to the different manipulations or “conditions” included in the experiment.
7
Q
cross-cultural research
A
research designed to compare and contrast people of different cultures
8
Q
Define social psychology
A
- the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context
- relies on the systematic approach of the scientific method
- distinctive characteristics include a focus on the individual as well as a broad perspective on a variety of social contexts and behaviours
- the “sociableness” of social psychology varies, as social psychologists sometimes examine how nonsocial factors affect social thoughts, feelings, and behaviours and sometimes study how social factors influence unsocial thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
9
Q
What role does self-recognition play in the development of self-concept? What role do others play?
A
Recognizing oneself as a distinct entity is a necessary first step in the evolution and development of a self-concept.
The second step involves social factors:
- Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1902) introduced the term looking-glass self to suggest that other people serve as a mirror in which we see ourselves.
- Expanding on this idea, George Herbert Mead (1934) added that we often come to know ourselves by imagining what significant others think of us and then incorporating these perceptions into our self- concepts.
- More recently, Susan Andersen and Serena Chen (2002) theorized that the self is “relational”—that we draw our sense of who we are from our past and current relation- ships with the significant others in our lives. – What we think of ourselves often does not match what specific others actually think of us
10
Q
external validity
A
the degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people and in other situations
11
Q
dialecticism
A
an Eastern system of thought that accepts the existence of contradictory characteristics within a single person
12
Q
hypothesis
A
a testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur
13
Q
If your research question is “Does role modelling increase helping behaviour in fifth grade school children?”, which of the following is the independent variable?
a) role modelling
b) helping behaviour
c) fifth grade
d) school children
A
A
14
Q
implicit egotism
A
a non conscious form of self-enhancement
15
Q
experiment
A
a form of research that can demonstrate causal relationships because the experimenter has control over the events that occur and participants are randomly assigned to the conditions
16
Q
Define self-presentation. Compare and contrast the two goals of self-presentation: strategic self-presentation and self-verification.
A
Self-presentation is the process by which we try to shape what others think of us and even what we think of ourselves.
Strategic self-presentation: through which we try to shape others’ impressions in order to be liked or seen as competent
Self-verification: through which we try to get others to perceive us as we perceive ourselves
17
Q
deception
A
in the context of research, a method that provides false information to participants
18
Q
Outline several ways for generating research ideas.
A
personal experiences and observations
events in the news
other research
19
Q
Social psychology
a) shows that common sense is always accurate.
b) shows that common sense is always inaccurate.
c) is the scientific pursuit of common sense.
d) tests the validity of and seeks to provide explanations for many common sense ideas about social behaviours.
A
D
20
Q
What is construct validity?
a) the extent to which the independent variable caused the observed change in the dependent variable
b) the extent to which the operational definitions reflect the conceptual variables of interest
c) the extent to which the experimental procedures are involving and meaningful to the participants
d) the extent to which different constructs within the study are correlated with one another
A
B
21
Q
Describe how social comparison theory and self-perception theory differ in their explanation for the development of the self.
A
Social comparison theory suggests that individuals assess their own strengths, weaknesses, and capabilities in comparison to others. They develop their sense of self based on what they believe others would like to see in them.
In contrast, self-perception theory suggests that individuals use self-observation to gain further understanding and awareness of themselves. They develop their sense of self based on personal reflection.
22
Q
List the major periods in the history of social psychology.
A
- The Birth and Infancy - 1880s to 1920s
- A Call to Action - 1930s - 1950s
- Confidence and Crisis - 1960s-Mid-1970s
- An Era of Pluralism - Mid-1970s-1990s
23
Q
Distinguish between applied research and basic research, and describe how basic research and applied research are connected.
A
Basic research seeks to understand our understanding of human behaviour and is often designed to test a specific hypothesis from a specific theory. Applied research makes use of social psychology’s theories or methods to enlarge our understanding of naturally occurring events and to contribute to the solution of social problems. Some researchers switch back and forth between the two. Some studies test a theory and examine a relation-world phenomenon simultaneously. Lewin was a pioneer in both approaches.
24
Q
confederate
A
accomplice of an experimenter who, in dealing with the real participants in an experiment, acts as if he or she is also a participant
25
theory
an organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena
26
What are the limits to trying to control or change one's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours through self-regulation?
a) Self-control is like working a muscle, once used, it becomes fatigues and loses strength, making it more difficult to re-exert self-control
b) All self-control efforts draw from a single common reservoir.
c) After you exert self-control in one task, their capacity for self0regulation is weakened.
d) Exerting self-control is physically taxing, it consumes glucose.
27
What is a meta-analysis?
A set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects.
28
When does self-recognition begin in humans?
most human infants begin to recognize themselves in the mirror between 18 and 24 months of age
29
Distinguish between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Identify the factors that can influence the effect of extrinsic factors on intrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation originates in factors within a person.
Extrinsic motivation originates in factors outside of a person.
Individual differences in motivational orientation and how the reward is perceived.
30
What is the purpose of correlational research? List the advantages and disadvantages of correlational research.
Correlational research examines the relationship between variables.
Advantages:
- it can study the associations of naturally occurring variables that cannot be manipulated or induced - such as gender, race, ethnicity, and age.
- it can examine phenomena that would be difficult or unethical to create for research purposes such as love, hate, and abuse.
- it offers researchers a great deal of freedom in where variables are measured.
Disadvantage: CORRELATION IS NOT CAUSATION
31
internal validity
the degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables
32
Describe the differences between basic research and applied research?
- Basic research seeks to increase our understanding of human behaviour and is often designed to test a specific hypothesis from a specific theory.
- Applied research makes use of social psychology's theories or methods to enlarge our understanding of naturally occurring events and to contribute to the solution of social problems.
33
Distinguish between private self-consciousness and public self-consciousness.
private self-consciousness: a personality characteristic of individuals who are introspective, often attending to their own innerstates (tendency to introspect about inner thoughts and feelings).
Reduced discrepancy relative to your own standards
public self-consciousness: a personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others. Tendency to focus on our outer public image. Match self to public.
34
Erin Strahan and colleagues (2008)
- Explored the impact of media images on body satisfaction ratings by female undergraduate students
- wanted to see if they could change whether a participant was feeling bad or good about her body by manipulating how aware she was of the cultural norms that we generally endorse in North America
- asked half of the women in the study to watch commercials with very thin, very attractive models, while others watched more neutral images
- after a break, were asked to rate themselves on self-worth and self-esteem scales
- consistent with previous research, those who viewed the thin models reported being less satisfied with their bodies
35
Which of the following distinguishes correlational research from experimental research?
a) Correlational research uses random assignment of research participants.
b) No attempt is made to systematically manipulate one or more variables in correlational research.
c) Correlational research can be used to study social attitudes.
d) The findings from correlational research can demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships among variables.
B
36
Describe the measures that researchers in social psychology must take to protect the welfare of human participants in their research.
They must obtain informed consent from participants. They also should practice debriefing that discloses if deception was used after data was collected.
37
According to your textbook, what is the best solution to the problem of experimenter expectancy effects?
a) the use of different experimenters in different conditions
b) letting participants choose their own condition
c) keeping experimenters uninformed about group assignment
d) strict attention to random assignment
C
38
experimental realism
the degree to which experimental procedures are involving to participants and lead them to behave naturally and spontaneously
39
Describe how social psychological findings may be distinguished from common sense or traditional folk wisdom.
- many social psychological theories and findings appear to be like common sense
- one problem with common sense, however, is that it may offer conflicting explanations and provide no way to test which one is correct.
- another problem is that common sense is often over-simplified and therefore misleading
40
Responses in self-reported surveys can be inaccurate because
a) the questions may be interpreted differently across cultures or contexts.
b) respondents may not remember accurately.
c) respondents may not answer questions honestly.
d) all of the above
D
41
The affective component of the self is
a) self-concept
b) self-presentation
c) self-esteem
d) self-perception
C
42
facial feedback hypothesis
the hypothesis that changes in facial expression can lead to corresponding changes in emotion
43
multicultural research
research designed to examine racial and ethnic groups within cultures
44
People tend to be overly optimistic about their future.
T or F
T
In general, people see themselves as more likely than average to have positive outcomes and less likely to have negative ones.
45
Distinguish between independent variables and dependent variables in experimental research.
An independent variable is a factor that experimenters MANIPULATE to see if it affects the dependable variable.
A dependent is a factor that experimenters MEASURE those if it is affected by the independent variable. For example - researchers are interested in seeing it the dependent variable would depend on, or be influenced by the manipulation of the independent variable.
46
What does no correlation look like on a graph?
no line - random dots everywhere
47
Why do people need self-esteem? How does self-esteem influence one's thought, feelings, and behaviour?
People are inherently social animals and the desire for self-esteem is driven by this more primitive need to connect with others and gain their approval.
Humans are biologically programmed for self-preservation. Yet we are conscious of - and terrified by - the inevitability of our own death. WE cope with they fear by constructing and accepting cultural worldviews that provide meaning and purpose and a buffer against anxiety.
48
Which of the following was a key component to critiques of social psychology in the 1960s and 1970s?
a) concerns about whether participants always received ethical treatment.
b) concerns over the relevance of laboratory research.
c) concerns that too many research approaches were being used within each area.
d) concerns that too many different cultures were being studied.
A
49
Explain why the 1960s to the mid-1970s was a period of confidence and crisis for social psychology.
- the Canadian government expanded its funding programs, attracting many social psychologists from the US and studied many investigations - a time of great productivity
- the crisis was that there was also intense debate about the ethics of research procedures, the validity of research results, and the generalizability of conclusions drawn from the research.
50
informed consent
an individual's deliberate, voluntary decision to participate in research, based on the researcher's description of what will be required during such participation
51
interrater reliability
the degree to which different observers agree on their observations
52
Identify four ways that people use to enhance their self-esteem (i.e., self-enhancement).
1) self-serving cognition: i) Those who score high take credit themselves, those who score low blame instructors
ii) Individuals believe that they have a higher chance of being successful, less likely to get divorced or fired, and more likely to bear a gifted child.
iii) Overestimating the extent to which you can influence personal outcomes that are not infact within their power to control.
2) Self-handicapping: Behaviour designed to sabotage one's own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure
3) Basking in the glory of others: to increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful
4) Downward social comparison: the defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are.
53
basic research
research designed to increase the understanding of human behaviour, often by testing hypotheses based on a theory
54
correlational research
research designed to measure the association between variables that are not manipulated by the researcher
55
Discuss 3 examples of evidence from research that point to our social nature.
1. Whether hurting from a physical pain, or from an emotional one, the same areas of the brain are activated. Therefore, social loss, such as a romantic breakup, may actually be experienced a physical pain.
2. People who have experiences with other cultures demonstrate more creative tendencies. This suggests that multicultural experiences help to keep us more open-minded and enable us to be more flexible thinkers.
3. Having close friends is associated with health benefits. Researchers have found that children and teens with fewer friends are more likely to experience depression and be sick more often than their more popular peers.
56
What does "treeing" mean?
going from article to article tracking down information about the research question on an electronic database
57
Define self-concept.
The self-concept is the sum total of a person's beliefs about his or her own attributes. It is the cognitive component of the self.
58
Cross-cultural research indicates that most North Americans are more likely than Asians to do which of the following?
a) perceive themselves as unique
b) assume blame for failures
c) strive for community belonging
d) alter the perceptions of others
A
59
overjustification effect
the tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with reward or other extrinsic factors
60
In order to conduct an experiment, which of the following must researchers have?
a) the ability to observe behaviour unnoticed
b) the ability to systematically measure two variables
c) the ability to manipulate an independent variable
d) a laboratory environment
C
61
What are the three report strategies psychologists use for self-reports to minimize the inaccuracy of self-reports?
1) interval contingent: report their experience at regular intervals, usually one per day
2) signal-contingent: report their experiences as soon as possible after receiving a signal
3) event-contingent: report on a designated set of events after they have occurred.
62
qualitative research
the collection of data through open-ended responses, observation, and interviews
63
Why are deception and confederates used in social psychological experiments?
They strength experimental realism.
It allows the experimenter to manufacture situations in the laboratory that would be difficult to observe in a natural setting: to study potentially harmful behaviours, such as aggression, in a regulated, safe manner; and to assess people's spontaneous reactions rather than socially acceptable presentations.
To assess people's spontaneous reactions rather than socially acceptable presentations.
64
Compared with high self-monitors, low self-monitors tend to
a) be good at impression management
b) act consistently across situations.
c) be less vulnerable to self-deception.
d) conform to social norms.
B
65
interactionist perspective
an emphasis on how both an individual's personality and environmental characteristics influence behaviour
66
social cognition
the study of how people perceive remember, and interpret information about themselves and others
67
self-presentation
strategies people use to shape what others think of them
68
self-esteem
an affective component of the self, consisting of a person's positive and negative self-evaluations
69
self-handicapping
behaviours designed to sabotage one's own performance in order to provide a subsequent excuse for failure
70
What is a correlation coefficient? How are the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables indicated in a correlation coefficient?
A statistic that measures the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.
Can range from -1.0 to +1.0.
The larger the absolute value of the number, the stronger the association between the two variables, and thus the better either of the variables is as a predictor of the other.
A positive correlation coefficient indicates that as one variable increases, so does the other. A negative coefficient indicates that the two variables go in opposite directions: As one goes up, the other tends to go down.
71
What are the competing arguments for and against science as value-free?
Moral values set standards for and impose limits on the conduct of research.
There are various views on the relation between values and science. Few believe that there can be a completely value-free science, but some advocate trying to minimize the influence of values on science, whereas others argue that values should be recognized and encouraged as an important factor in science.
72
random sampling
a method of selecting participants for a study so that everyone in a population has an equal chance of being in the study
73
Two recent trends in social psychology have been a growing interest in
a) cross-cultural perspectives and social cognition.
b) social motivation research and attitude research.
c) sociocultural perspective and social neuroscience.
d) attitude research and conformity research.
C
74
Describe the social comparison theory as proposed by Festinger. When do people engage in social comparison, and with whom do they compare themselves?
The social comparison theory as proposed by Festinger argued that when people are uncertain of their abilities or opinions, that is when objective information is not available, they evaluate themselves through comparisons with others.
People engage in social comparisons in states of uncertainty, when more objective means of self-evaluation are not available.
We look to others who are similar to us in relevant ways.
75
How is social psychology different from other social sciences, such as sociology?
- tends to focus on individuals, whereas sociology tends to focus on groups
- social psychology is less likely than sociology to study the relation between broad societal variables and people's behaviours and is more likely to use experimentation.
76
Distinguish between the actual self, the ought self, and the ideal self. How are these concepts used in the self-discrepancy theory to account for one's self-esteem level and any changes in self-esteem?
Actual self: the self you are. Self-concept.
ought self: the self you think you ought to be, that would enable you to meet your sense of duty, obligation, and responsibility
ideal self: the person you would like to be. embodies hopes, wishes, and dreams.
77
For social psychology, the 1960s and early 1970s was a period of
a) confidence and crisis
b) stability and maturity
c) pluralism and development.
d) infancy and maturation
A
78
What are the four main historical periods of social psychology?
1. The Birth and Infancy of Social Psychology 1880s to 1920s.
2. A Call to Action 1930s to 1950s
3. Confidence and Crisis in the 1960s to mid-1970s
4. An Era of Pluralism the 1970s to 1990s
79
private self-consciousness
a personality characteristic of individuals who are introspective, often attending to their own inner states
80
debriefing
a disclosure, made to participant after research procedures are completed, in which the researcher explains the purpose of the research, attempts to resolve any negative feelings and em
81
Describe the steps in doing research in social psychology.
Asking Questions
Searching the Literature
Hypotheses and Theories
Basic and Applied Research
82
Internal validity refers to the extent to which
a) the results of the research study apply to different populations.
b) the variables measure what they are purposed to measure.
c) the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable.
d) the results of the research study have statistical significance.
C
83
What social benefits do multicultural experiences create?
keep us more open-minded and enable us to be more flexible thinkers
84
What are the three concepts of the self?
1) self-concept: the cognitive component of self.
2) self-esteem: the affective component of self.
3) self-presentation: the behavioural component of self
85
Describe the self-perception theory as proposed by Bem. How can the self-perception theory be used to understand emotion, behaviour, and motivation?
People infer what they think or how they feel by observing their own behaviour and the situation in which that behaviour takes place.
Based on self-perception theory, the facial feedback hypothesis states that facial expressions can produce, not just reflect, an emotion state (smiling can cause us to feel happy).
Studies of the over justification effect show that people sometimes lose interest in activities for which they are rewarded.
If a reward is seen as a "bonus" for superior performance, then it can enhance intrinsic motivation by providing positive feedback.
86
Although related to other fields, social psychology is distinct in that its emphasis is on which of the following?
a) describing the relationship between human behaviour and social variables.
b) understanding the influence of societal forces on group behaviour.
c) identifying individual characteristics that are relatively stable across time.
d) understanding the immediate situational factors that influence human behaviour.
D
87
Humans are the only animals who recognize themselves in the mirror.
T or F
F
Studies have shown that the great apes are also capable of self-recognition.
88
Which of the following is not a characteristic of social psychology?
a) a focus on societal variables, such as social class
b) a focus on the individual
c) the frequent use of experimental methodology
d) interest in understanding behaviours in the social world
A
89
What was the major focus of social psychological research from the 1930s to the 1950s?
- began to flourish because the world needed an explanation for the violence of war and solutions to it.
- Sherif's work laid the foundation for later studies of social influence, and the legacy of Kurt Lewin is still evident throughout much of social psychology
90
bask in reflected glory (BIRG)
to increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful
91
Jasper is feeling guilty and ashamed because he did not help his mother paint the house. Jasper is most likely suffering from a discrepancy between what two aspects of the self?
a) The ideal self and the ought self
b) The ideal self and the actual self
c) The ought self and the actual self
d) The actual self and the real self
C
92
who introduced the term "looking-glass self" and what did it mean?
```
Charles Cooley (1902)
the term suggested that other people serve as a mirror in which we see ourselves.
```
93
hypothesis
a testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur
94
What does correlation is not causation mean?
A correlation cannot demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship.
Instead of revealing a specific causal pathway from one variable, A, to another variable B, a correlation between variables A and B contains within it three possible causal effects: A could cause B; B could cause A; or a third variable, C, could cause both A and B.
95
mundane realism
the degree to which the experimental situation resembles places and events in the real world
96
self-awareness theory
the theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies, thereby motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behaviour
97
two-factor theory of emotion
the theory that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal
98
In what ways can individualistic and collectivistic cultural orientation influence one's self-concept?
Individualism and collectivism are so ingrained in a culture that they mold our self conceptions and identities.
Individualistic: independent view of self, that the self is an entity that is distinct, autonomous, self-contained, and endowed with unique dispositions. “the only person you can count on is yourself” “I enjoy being unique and different from others”. Defined by independence “I am shy”. Strive for personal achievement, overestimate own contributions to team effort, etc. Sees self as less similar to others.
a) Collectivist: interdependent view of self, self is part of a larger social network that includes one’s family, co-workers, and others with whom one is socially connected. “I’m partly to blame if one of my family members or co-workers fails” “my happiness depends on the happiness of those around me”. Defined by group participation “I am a college student”. Satisfaction from status of valued group. more self-critical and less self-enhancing than individualistic.
99
meta-analysis
a set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects
100
social comparison theory
the theory that people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others
101
To learn about human behaviour, which of the following does social psychology rely on most heavily?
a) critical analysis to develop general principles that describe human behaviour.
b) the assumption that only social factors influence human behaviour.
c) the scientific method to learn about human behaviour.
d) cultural analysis to learn about human behaviour.
C
102
self-monitoring
the tendency to change behaviour in response to the self-presentation concerns of the situation
103
Describe briefly the birth and infancy of social psychology. Who are considered the founders of social psychology? When did the field of social psychology become a distant field of psychology?
- early research by Triplett and Ringelmann established an enduring topic in social psychology: how the presence of others affects an individual's performance.
- the first social psychology textbooks in 1908 and 1924 began to give the emerging field of social psychology its shape
104
What does a negative correlation look like on a graph?
line goes upwards and to the left - dots gather around the line
105
evolutionary psychology
a subfield of psychology that uses the principles of evolution to understand human social behaviour
106
Describe the two-factor theory of emotion as proposed by Schachter. Under what conditions does the social context not influence one's interpretation of unclear emotional states?
The two-factor theory of emotion states that experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal.
For others to influence your emotion, your level of physiological arousal cannot be too intense, or else it will be experiences as averse, regardless of the situation.
Also, other people must be present as a possible explanation for arousal before its onset. Once people are aroused, they turn for an explanation to events that preceded the change in tier physiological states.
107
How are high self-monitors different from low self-monitors? Are high monitors necessarily more adaptive than low monitors?
High self-monitors modify their behaviour, as appropriate, from one situation to the next.
Low self-monitors express themselves in a more consistent manner, exhibiting at all times what they see as their true self.
Neither are necessarily more adaptive. It is safe to conclude that neither high nor low self monitoring is necessarily undesirable, unless carried to the extreme.
108
What does a positive correlation look like on a graph?
line goes upwards and to the right - dots gather around the line
109
Helene is schematic concerning honesty. Which of the following statements best describes Helene?
a) She is likely to see honesty as important only some of the time.
b) She is likely to consider honesty a central part of her self-concept.
c) She is likely to report on the dishonest behaviours of others.
d) She is likely to be more concerned about appearing honest than most other people.
B
110
Define subject variable, and give an example.
A variable that characterizes pre-existing differences among the subjects, or participants, in the experiment. They cannot be manipulated and randomly assigned, so they are not true independent variables, nor are they influenced by the independent variables, so they are not dependent variables. Ex. cultural background
111
experimenter expectancy effects
the effects produced when an experimenter's expectations about the results of an experiment affect his or her behaviour toward a participant and thereby influence the participant's responses
112
A research participant is said to have given informed consent if the participant decides to participate in a study after receiving
a) information about previous research studies.
b) enough information to make an informed decision.
c) a description of the purpose of the experiment.
d) the guarantee of a full debriefing after the experiment.
B
113
Describe the differences and advantages of using correlational research and experimental research.
Correlational Research:
1. Involves measuring variables and the degree of association between them.
2. Biggest advantage is it enables researchers to study naturally occurring variables, including variables that would be difficult or unethical to manipulate.
Experimental Research:
1. Random assignment to conditions and control over the events that occur; determining the effects of manipulations of the independent variable(s) on change in the dependent variable(s)
2. Biggest advantage is that it enables researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships
114
In what ways are new technologies changing social psychological research?
- improved brain imaging techniques have contributed to ground breaking research
- virtual reality technology enables researchers to test questions that otherwise would be impractical, impossible, or unethical
- the internet has fostered communication and collaboration among researchers around the world, enabled researchers to study participants from diverse populations, and inspired researchers to investigate whether various social psychological phenomena are similar or different online vs offline
115
culture
a system of enduring meanings, beliefs, values, assumptions, institutions, and practices shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
116
How was the crisis for social psychology resolved in the mid-70s to the 1990s?
- the development of a pluralistic approach that recognized that because different topics require different kinds of investigations, a range of research techniques is needed beyond the laboratory experiment approach
- more rigorous ethical standards for research were instituted
- more stringent procedures to guard against bias were adopted
- more attention was paid to possible cross-cultural differences in behaviour and multicultural perspectives
117
independent variable
in an experiment, a factor that experimenters manipulate to see if it affects the dependent variable
118
Among the following social psychologists, who was one of the original founders of social psychology?
a) Norman Triplett
b) Stanley Milgram
c) Michael Norton
d) Philip Zimbardo
A
119
random assignment
a method of assigning participants to the various conditions of an experiment so that each participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions
120
Identify four ways that people use to enhance their self-esteem (i.e., self-enhancement).
1. self-serving cognitions: taking credit for success and denying the blame for failure
2. self-handicapping: in order to excuse anticipated failure
3. basking in reflected glory: boosts their self-esteem through associations with successful others
4. downward social comparisons to others who are less well off.
121
social neuroscience
the study of the relationship between neural and social processes
122
two-factor theory of emotion
the theory that the experience of emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal
123
Smiling can make you feel happier.
T or F
T
Consistent with the facial feedback hypothesis, facial expressions can trigger or amplify the subjective experience of emotion.
124
According to your textbook, what is the most important feature that should be considered when selecting samples in survey studies?
a) inclusion of equal numbers of individuals from different groups in the population.
b) the number of people in the sample.
c) the ratio of the sample size to the population size.
d) the extent to which the demographics of the sample proportionally match those of the population
D
125
social psychology
the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context
126
It's more adaptive to alter one's behaviour than to stay consistent from one social situation to the next.
T or F
F
High and low self-monitors differ in the extent to which they alter their behaviour to suit the situation they are in, but neither style is inherently more adaptive.
127
What does Schachter's two-factor theory of emotion propose about emotional experience?
a) That it is independent of social comparison processes
b) That it requires a combination of positive and negative physiological arousal
c) That it is independent of physiological arousal
d) That it is based on physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal
D
128
In contrast to individuals from Western cultures, those from collectivist cultures define themselves primarily in terms of
a) personal abilities.
b) personal values.
c) relationships with people, groups, and institutions.
d) education and career goals.
C
129
Differentiate between random sampling and random assignment.
Random sampling is selecting participants for a study so that everyone from a population has an equal chance, whereas random assignment is assigning participants already in a study to the various conditions of the experiment so that each participant has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions.
Random sampling enables researchers to collect data from samples that are representative of the broader population; important for being able to generalize the results to the broader population.
Random assignment equalizes the conditions of the experiment so that it is very unlikely that the conditions differ in terms of pre-existing differences among the participants; essential to determine that the independent variable(s) caused an effect on the dependent variable (s).
130
Who proposed self-perception theory and during what year?
Darly Bem (1972)
131
People often sabotage their own performance in order to build an excuse for anticipated failure.
T or F
T
Studies have shown that people often handicap their own performance in order to build an excuse for anticipated failure.
132
What is self-esteem?
a) It is a constructed cognitive component of the self-concept.
b) It is an overall self-evaluation based, in part, on success and failure.
c) It is a large knowledge-base about the self.
d) It is a trait that is stable, varying little across the life span.
B
133
Sometimes the harder you try to control a thought, feeling, or behaviour, the less likely you are to succeed.
T or F
T
Research on ironic processes in mental control has revealed that trying to inhibit a thought, feeling, or behaviour often backfires.
134
dependent variable
in an experiment, a factor that experimenters measure to see if it is affected by the independent variable
135
downward social comparison
the defensive tendency to compare ourselves with others who are worse off than we are
136
Define construct validity. Why is it necessary to establish construct validity in research?
Construct validity is the extent to which the measures used in a study measure the variables they were designed to measure and the manipulations in an experiment manipulate the variables they were designed to manipulate.
137
Who expanded the self as a social concept theory to be more relational?
Susan Andersen and Serena Chen (2002)
-theorized that the self is "relational" - that we draw our sense of who we are from our past and current relationships with the significant others in our lives.
138
Briefly describe the self-awareness theory. What situations tend to evoke self-awareness? How do people cope when they are aware of self-discrepancies?
the theory that self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies, thereby motivating either an escape from self-awareness or a change in behaviour. Self-awareness = unhappy
Self-awareness theory suggests two ways of coping:
1) Shape up, by behaving in ways that reduce our self-discrepancies, or
2) Ship out, by withdrawing from self-awareness (escapism).
139
quantitative research
the collection of numerical data through objective testing and statistical analysis
140
Who wrote "The Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Became Who we Are" (2002)
Joseph Ledoux - neuroscientist
141
Describe Kurt Lewin's contributions to social psychology.
- fled the Nazi onslaught in Germany and immigrated to the US
-concepts have had a lasting effect on the field
-established some of the fundamental principles of social psychology:
1. Behaviour is a function of the interaction between
the person and the environment (interactionist
perspective)
2. Social psychological theories should be applied to
important, practical issues. ex. how to persuade
people at home during the war to conserve materials
142
Define conceptual variables and operational definitions. How are they related? Give an example of a conceptual variable and its operational definition.
- conceptual variables are abstract, general variables that are often used when a researcher first develops it's hypothesis.
- the specific way in which a conceptual variable is manipulated or measured is called the operational definition of the variable.
- Ex. a researcher might operationally define "conformity" in a particular study as the number of times a participant indicated agreement with the obviously wrong judgments made by a group of confederates
143
Self-handicapping is a strategy that some people use to protect their self-esteem by
a) creating an expectation of success.
b) creating an opportunity for success.
c) purposely setting themselves up for failure so that they can provide an excuse for their anticipated failure.
d) refusing to cheat on a test when others do.
C
144
Distinguish between two cultural orientations: individualism and collectivism. Give examples of countries in which each of these cultural orientations predominates.
virtues independence, autonomy, and self-reliance. Personal goals take priority over group allegiances. Western
virtues interdependence, cooperation and social harmony. Person is motivated to be part of a group, not different, better, or worse. East. (Japan, pakistan, etc).
145
behavioural genetics
a subfield of psychology that examines the role of genetic factors in behaviour
146
theory
an organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena
147
What is the relationship between self-enhancement, mental health, and perception of reality?
Recent research suggests that certain positive illusions may foster high self-esteem and mental health.
An alternative view is that such illusions promote self- defeating behaviour patterns and that people with inflated views of themselves are liked less by others.
148
subject variable
a variable that characterizes pre-existing differences among the participants in a study
149
Define internal validity and external validity.
Internal validity is the degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables.
External validity is the degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people and in other situations.
150
affective forecasting
the process of predicting how one would feel in response to future emotional events
151
What is the purpose of descriptive research? Describe the methods used to conduct descriptive research.
- to record how frequently or typically people think, feel, or behave in particular ways
- observational research - researchers observe individuals systematically, often in natural settings
- qualitative research, researchers go beyond the numbers to better understand why a particular behaviour occurs
- archival research - researchers examine existing records and documents such as newspaper articles, diaries, and published crime statistics
- surveys involve asking people questions about their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours
152
How is social psychology different from other fields of psychology?
- in contrast to clinical psychology, social psychology focuses not on disorders, but, rather, on the more typical ways in which individuals think, feel, behave, and interact
- personality psychology focuses on differences between individuals that remain relatively stable across a variety of situations; social psychology focuses on how social factors affect most individuals, regardless of their different personalities.
- cognitive and social psychologists share an interest in mental processes such as thinking, learning, remembering, and reasoning: but social psychologists focus on the relevance of these processes to social behaviour
153
In the social comparison theory as proposed by Festinger in 1954,
a) people are motivated to evaluate their opinions, feelings, and abilities.
b) people will evaluate themselves in comparison with others, especially in the absence of objective bases of evaluation.
c) people always compare themselves with other people whom they admire.
d) both a. and b. are accurate
D
154
What are the advantages and disadvantages of correlational research?
Advantages:
1. can study the associations of naturally occurring variables that cannot be manipulated or induced - such as gender, race, ethnicity, and age.
2. can examine phenomena that would be difficult or unethical to create for research purposes, such as love, hate, and abuse.
3. it offers researchers a great deal of freedom in where variables are measured.
Disadvantage: \*major\*
1. correlation DOES NOT equal causation
155
Describe how social psychology incorporates cognitive, biological, evolutionary, and sociocultural perspectives of human behaviour in the new century.
- biological perspectives, including perspectives based on neuroscience, genetics, and evolutionary principles, are being applied to the study of social psychological issues such as gender differences, relationships, and aggression
- increasing numbers of social psychologists are evaluating the universal generality or cultural specificity of their theories and findings by examining similarities and differences across cultures as well as between racial and ethnic groups within cultures.
156
Which of the following is not true of social psychology in Canada?
a) Social psychology in Canada began in the 1910s.
b) Researchers from both Canada and the United States have dominated social psychology throughout most of its history.
c) Most of the Canadian social psychological research differs little from research conducted in the United States.
d) Canadian social psychologists have become world leaders in domains that are particularly relevant to Canadian society.
B
157
Describe the differences and advantages of using random sampling vs. random assignment.
Random sampling:
1. Involves selecting participants to be in the study so everyone from a population has an equal chance of being a participant in the study.
2. Biggest advantage is that it enables researchers to collect data from samples that are representatives of the broader population; important for being able to generalize the results to the broader population.
Random assignment:
1. Involves assigning participants (who are already in the study) to the various conditions of the experiment so that each participant has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions.
2. Biggest advantage of using this procedure is that it equalizes the conditions of the experiment so that it is very unlikely that the conditions differ in terms of preexisting differences among the participants; essential to determine that the independent variable(s) caused an effect on the dependent variable(s).
158
applied research
research designed to enlarge the understanding of naturally occurring events and to find solutions to practical problems
159
public self-consciousness
a personality characteristic of individuals who focus on themselves as social objects, as seen by others
160
Distinguish between a hypothesis and a theory, and describe the connection between the two.
A hypothesis is a a testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur and a theory is an organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena. As hypotheses proliferate and data are collected to test the hypotheses, a more advanced step in the research process may take place: the proposal of a theory.
161
Define self-esteem. Is one's self-esteem stable or unstable throughout life?
Self-esteem is an affective component of the self, consisting of a person's positive and negative self-evaluations. As a general rule, self-esteem is a trait that is stable from childhood through old age. Yet for some people in particular, self-esteem seems to fluctuate up and down in response to daily experiences - which makes them highly responsive to praise and overly sensitive to criticism.
