Chapters 4-6 Flashcards
(151 cards)
1
Q
Define social perception.
A
Social perception is a general term for the processes by which people come to understand one another.
2
Q
Describe how the perception of other people can be influenced by their physical appearance.
A
skin colour, hair, tattoos…
People pre-judge one another by facial features.
People with baby faced features tend to be seen as warm, kind, naive, weak, honest and submissive. Adults with more mature features - smaller eyes, rougher skin- are seen as stronger and more dominant.
We sometimes infer attitudes that we assume the individual holds, just on the basis of their faces.
Attractive people are deemed to be more li
3
Q
Define scripts. What are the functions of scripts in social perception?
A
Preset notions about certain types of situations that enable us to anticipate the goals, behaviors, and outcomes likely to occur in a particular setting.
Knowledge of social settings provides an important context for understanding other people’s verbal and nonverbal behaviour.
Scripts influence social perceptions in two ways: 1) We sometimes see what we expect to see in a particular situation. 2) People use what they know about social situations to explain the causes of human behaviour.
4
Q
Identify the six “primary” emotions expressed by the face, regardless of culture.
A
Happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, disgust, fear
5
Q
Describe how people use non-verbal cues such as body language, eye contact, and touch to judge others.
A
People form impressions of others based on how they walk.
People assume someone who avoids eye contact is evasive, cold, fearful and someone who stares is tense, angry and unfriendly.
First impressions we form of others may be influenced by the quality of our handshake.
6
Q
Which channels of communication are most likely to reveal that someone is lying? Are these channels the same as the channels that perceivers use to detect deception?
A
The face can communicate emotion, but it is relatively easy for deceivers to control, unlike the nervous movements of the hands and feet.
Four channels of communication provide info: words, face, body, voice. The voice is the most telling channel; when people lie, they tend to hesitate, then speed up and raise the pitch of their voice.
Perceives tend to think that people avert their eyes, or fidget and squirm when lying. Research does not support this.
7
Q
What are attribution theories?
A
A group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behaviour.
8
Q
Distinguish between personal and situational attributions.
A
Personal attribution is attribution to personal characteristics of an actor, such as ability, personality, mood, or effort.
Situational attribution is attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck.
9
Q
Briefly describe Jones’s correspondent inference theory.
A
According to Jones and Davis, each of us tries to understand other people by observing and analyzing their behaviour. Their correspondent inference theory predicts that people try to infer from an action, whether the act itself corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic of the actor. Is the person who donates money altruistic? Is the aggressive person a beast? People answer these questions based on 3 factors:
1) The person’s degree of choice. Behaviour that is freely chosen, is more informative about a person than behaviour that is coerced.
2) The expectedness of behaviour. An action tells us more about a person when it departs from the norm that when it is typical, part of a societal role, or otherwise expected under the circumstances. Therefore, people think they know more about a person, when that person acts outside the norm.
3) People consider the intended effects, or consequences of someone’s behaviour. Acts that produce many desirable outcomes do not reveal a person’s specific motives as clearly as acts that produce only a single desireable outcome.
10
Q
Briefly describe Kelley’s covariation theory.
A
According to Kelley, people make attributions by using the covariation principle: In order for something to be the cause of a behaviour, it must be present when the behaviour occurs and absent when it does not. Three kinds of covariation info are particularly useful: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.
11
Q
What are cognitive heuristics (in general)?
A
Info-processing rules of thumb that enable us to think in ways that are quick and easy but that frequently lead to error.
12
Q
Define the availability heuristic, and give a personal example.
A
Availability Heuristic is the tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind.
Ex: People from Sudbury that listen to heavy metal.
13
Q
Define the false-consensus effect and the base-rate fallacy. Explain how the availability heuristic can give rise to the false-consensus effect and the base-rate fallacy.
A
False-consensus effect: The tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions, attributes, and behaviours.
Base-rate fallacy: The finding that people are relatively insensitive to consensus info presented in the form of numerical base rates and are instead influenced by dramatic, graphic events.
We tend to associate with others who are like us in important ways, so we are more likely to notice and recall instances of similar rather than dissimilar behaviour.
Also, social perceptions are influenced more by one vivid life story than by hard statistics.
14
Q
Define counter-factural thinking. When is counter-factural thinking likely to occur?
A
Counterfactual thinking is the tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occurred but did not.
People’s top three regrets center on education, career and romance, in that order.
15
Q
Define the fundamental attribution error.
A
The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to focus on the role of personal causes and underestimate the impact of situations on other people’s behaviour, this error is sometimes called correspondence bias.
16
Q
Summarize the two-step process model that explains the occurrence of the fundamental attribution error. What factors make the fundamental attribution error less likely to occur?
A
Automatic first step: we identify the behaviour and make a quick personal attribution.
Second: We adjust or correct that inference to account for situational influences.
17
Q
Define the actor-observer effect. How is this attribution bias different from the fundamental attribution error?
A
The tendency to attribute our own behaviour to situational causes and the behaviour of others to personal factors.
18
Q
What is the “belief in a just world”? What function does this belief serve?
A
The belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, an orientation that leads people to disparage victims.
It helps people cope and acts as a buffer against stress.
19
Q
Describe the summation model and the averaging model of impression formation. Illustrate each model with an example.
A
Impression formation: The process of integrating info about a person to form a coherent impression.
The summation model of impression formation: the more positive traits there are, the better.
Averaging model: The higher the average value of all the various traits, the better.
20
Q
Describe information integration theory. How do characteristics of the perceiver influence impression formation? How do characteristics of the target influence impression formation?
A
Information integration theory is the theory that impressions are based on perceiver dispositions and a weighted average of a target person’s traits.
We tend to use ourselves as a standard, or frame of reference, when evaluating others. People also tend to see their own traits and skills as particularly desirable for others to have.
A perceiver’s current, mood can also influence the impressions formed of others.
Social perceivers are more likely to agree in their judgments of a target’s extroversion, that is, the extent to which he or she is sociable, friendly, outgoing and adventurous. This characteristic is easy to spot.
The valence of a trait- whether it is considered socially desirable- also affects its impact on our final impressions. Research shows that people exhibit a trait negativity bias- the tendency for negative info to weigh more heavily than positive info
21
Q
Describe the implicit personality theory, and explain how it affects a person’s impression of other people.
A
Implicit personality theory: a network of assumptions that we hold about relationships among various types of people, traits and behaviours. Knowing that someone has one trait, leads us to infer that she has other traits as well.
22
Q
What are central traits? How do central traits affect a person’s impression of other people?
A
Central traits imply the presence of certain other traits and exert a powerful influence on final impressions.
23
Q
What is the primacy effect with respect to impression formation? Provide two main explanations for the primary effect.
A
Primacy effect: the tendency for info presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than info presented later.
Two reasons:
Once perceivers think they have formed an accurate impression of someone, they tend to pay less attention to subsequent info, especially when tired or under pressure.
Change of meaning hypothesis: Once people have formed an impression, they start to interpret inconsistent info in light of that impression.
24
Q
Describe how people’s beliefs can create the reality they expect (e.g., belief perseverance and self-fulfilling prophecy).
A
Belief perseverance: The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited.
Self-fulfilling prophecy: The process by which one’s expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations.
25
actor-observer effect
The tendency to attribute our own behaviour to situational causes and the behaviour of others to personal factors.
26
attribution theory
A group of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behaviour.
27
availability heuristic
The tendency to estimate the likelihood that an event will occur by how easily instances of it come to mind.
28
base-rate fallacy
The finding that people are relatively insensitive to consensus information presented in the form of numerical base rates.
29
belief in a just world
The belief that individuals get what they deserve in life, an orientation that leads people to disparage victims.
30
belief in perseverance
The tendency to maintain beliefs even after they have been discredited.
31
central traits
Traits that exert a powerful influence on overall impressions.
32
confirmation bias
The tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies existing beliefs.
33
counterfactual thinking
The tendency to imagine alternative events or outcomes that might have occurred but did not.
34
fundamental attribution error
The tendency to focus on the role of personal causes and underestimate the impact of situations on other people’s behaviour. This error is sometimes called correspondence bias.
35
implicit personality theory
A network of assumptions people make about the relationships among traits and behaviours.
36
impression formation
The process of integrating information about a person to form a coherent impression.
37
information integration theory
The theory that impressions are based on perceiver dispositions and a weighted average of a target person’s traits.
38
primacy effect
The tendency for information presented early in a sequence to have more impact on impressions than information presented later.
39
priming
The tendency for recently used or perceived words or ideas to come to mind easily and influence the interpretation of new information
40
self-fulfilling prophecy
The process by which one’s expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations.
41
social perception
A general term for the processes by which people come to understand one another.
42
Distinguish between discrimination, prejudice, and stereotypes.
Discrimination: Negative behaviour directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group.
Prejudice: Refers to the negative feelings towards persons based on their membership in certain groups.
Stereotypes: Beliefs or associations that link groups of people with certain characteristics.
Ingroups are groups we identify with; we contrast these with outgroups.
43
Describe the process by which stereotypes are formed.
How and why do people form stereotypes? The commonsense answer to these questions is captured in social learning theory. Simply put, we learn stereotypes from parents (our first and most influential teachers), significant others (e.g., peers), and the media. True enough. Research supports commonsense here but also indicates that commonsense does not tell the whole story.
Another explanation for how we form stereotypes comes from research in cognitive psychology on the categorization process. People like to, want to, need to categorize the world, both the social and physical world, into preferably neat little groups. They inevitably do so (i.e., categorize) for 3 reasons.
1) it's cognitively efficient - once you have categorized you no longer need to consider information about each individual member of the group. You can apply all of the group information to all of its members. Categorization saves processing timeorized you no longer need to consider information about each individual member of the group. You can apply all of the group information to all of its members. Categorization saves processing time.
2) it satisfies the need to understand and predict the social world. You no longer need to wonder what each individual is like (understand), or what he or she is likely to do (predict). All of this is contained in the stereotype.
3) it's a way to feel better about yourself; we think our groups (ingroups) are better than other groups (outgroups)- the INGROUP FAVORABILITY BIAS
Negative stereotypes of outgroups can help justify the desire to exclude outgroups, and the stereotypes in turn can fuel even more prejudice and discrimination.
44
What are the advantages and disadvantages of social categorization?
By grouping people the way we group foods, animals and other objects, we form impressions quickly and use past experience to guide new interactions. We save time by using a person's group membership to make inferences about them.
Categorizing people leads us to overestimate the differences between groups and underestimate the differences within groups.Ingroups: Groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging and identity.
45
Differentiate in-groups from out-groups. How are in-group members perceived differently from out-group members?
Ingroups: Groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging and identity.
Outgroups: Groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging, or identity.
46
How do illusory correlations, attributional processes, subtyping, and confirmation biases help perpetuate stereotypes?
Illusory correlation is a tendency for people to overstimate the link between variables that are only slightly correlated, or not at all correlated. This happens in two ways 1) people tend to overestimate the association between variables that are distinctive. That is, variables that capture attention (news) because they are novel, or horrific or unusual. 2) people tend to overestimate the association between variables that they already expect to go together.
Implications for stereotyping:
People overestimate the joint occurrence of distinct variables they expect to be associated with each other, such as stereotyped groups and stereotyped behaviours. Also, Unless otherwise motivated, people overestimate the joint occurrence of distinctive variables such as minority groups and deviant acts.
Attributions:
People maintain stereotypes through how they explain the behaviours of others. Perceivers may see confirmation of the stereotype, instead of recognizing the consequences of the discrimination.
Subtyping:
Subtyping occurs when perceivers respond to members of a target group who disconfirm their stereotypes by seeing them as exceptions to the rule and placing them in a separate subcategory apart from members who confirm the stereotype.
Confirmation Bias:
The effects of stereotyping on people's perceptions is a type of confirmation bias. It involves people's tendencies to interpret, seek and create info that seems to confirm their expectations
47
Describe briefly the Robbers Cave study. What is the significance of the results of this study?
A small group of 11 year old boys, all strangers, all white, arrived at a 200 acre camp. They spent a week hiking etc and bonding and gave themselves a name, printed it on T-shirts. They believed they were the only ones at the camp, but there was another group and a tournament was arranged between the two groups, only after each group had formed their own culture.
The two groups participated in many events, where they were awarded prizes and a trophy was promised to the winning group. The groups became fierce rivals, flags were burned, cabins were ransacked and continued to escalate.
Researchers tried to bring peace by saying nice things about each group to the opposite group, brought the groups together during non competitive circumstances, but it didn't work.
What did work was superordinate goals: mutual goals that could be achieved only through cooperation between the groups
48
Describe the realistic conflict theory. What role does relative deprivation play in fostering prejudice?
The view that direct competition for valuable but limited resources breeds hostility between groups is called realistic conflict theory.
There is much more to prejudice than real competition. The realistic competition for resources may be in fact imagined. Also, people may become resentful of other groups-not because if their conviction that their own security or resources are threatened, but because of their sense of relative deprivation- the belief that they fare poorly compared to others.
49
ambivalent sexism
A form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings, and affectionate, chivalrous, but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings.
50
contact hypothesis
The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain conditions
51
discrimination
Negative behaviour directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group
52
group illusory correlation
An overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated.
53
implicit racism
Racism that operates unconsciously and unintentionally
54
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
A covert measure of unconscious attitudes, it is derived from the speed at which people respond to pairings of concepts, such as black or white with good or bad.
55
in-group favouritism
The tendency to discriminate in favour of ingroups over outgroups.
56
ingroups
Groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity.
57
jigsaw classroom
A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts.
58
modern racism
A form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize.
59
outgroup homogeneity effect
The tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups
60
outgroups
Groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership, belonging, or identity.
61
prejudice
Negative feelings toward persons based on their membership in certain groups.
62
racism
Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s racial background, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one racial group over another.
63
realistic conflict theory
The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources
64
relative deprivation
Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared to others.
65
sexism
Prejudice and discrimination based on a person’s gender, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one gender over another.
66
social categorization
The classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes.
67
social dominance orientation
A desire to see one’s ingroups as dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups.
68
social identity theory
The theory that people favour ingroups over outgroups in order to enhance their self- esteem.
69
social role theory
The theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women.
70
stereotype
A belief or association that links a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics.
71
stereotype content model
A model proposing that the relative status and competition between groups influence group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth.
72
stereotype threat
The experience of concern about being evaluated based on negative stereotypes about one’s group.
73
subliminal presentation
A method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly that people do not have any conscious awareness of having been exposed to them.
74
superordinate goals
A shared goal that can be achieved only through cooperation among individuals or group
75
What are the alternative views to cognitive dissonance as an explanation for self-persuasion?
Alternate explanations of dissonance-related attitude change have been proposed. Self perception theory states that people logically infer their attitudes by observing their own behaviours. Impression-management theory says that people are motivated only to appear consistent to others. Self esteem theorists state that dissonance is triggered by threats to the self-concept and can be reduced indirectly, without a change in attitude, through self-affirming experiences.
76
group
Two or more persons perceived as related because of their interactions with each other over time, membership in the same social category, or common fate.
77
cross-race identification bias
The tendency for people to have difficulty identifying members of a race other than their own.
78
attitude
A positive, negative, or mixed reaction to a person, object, or idea.
79
attitude scale
A multiple-item questionnaire designed to measure a person’s attitude toward some object.
80
bogus pipeline
A fake lie-detector device that is sometimes used to get respondents to give truthful answers to sensitive questions.
81
central route to persuasion
The process by which a person thinks carefully about a communication and is influenced by the strength of its arguments.
82
cognitive dissonance theory
The theory that holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce.
83
elaboration
The process of thinking about and scrutinizing the arguments contained in a persuasive communication.
84
facial electromyograph (EMG)
An electronic instrument that records facial muscle activity associated with emotions and attitudes.
85
implicit attitude
An attitude—such as prejudice— that one is not aware of having.
86
Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP)
A way of measuring unconscious attitudes, similar to the IAT,
that focuses on cognition and specific relations rather than general associations.
87
inoculation hypothesis
The idea that exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument.
88
insufficient deterrence
A condition in which people refrain from engaging in a desirable activity, even when only mild punishment is threatened
89
insufficient justification
A condition in which people freely perform an attitude- discrepant behaviour without receiving a large reward.
90
need for cognition (NC)
A personality variable that distinguishes people on the basis of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities.
91
peripheral route to persuasion
The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues
92
persuasion
The process by which attitudes are changed
93
psychological reactance
The theory that people react against threats to their freedom by asserting themselves and perceiving the threatened freedom as more attractive.
94
sleeper effect
A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a noncredible source
95
theory of planned behaviour
The theory that attitudes toward a specific behaviour combine with subjective norms and perceived control to influence a person’s actions.
96
group
two or more people perceived as having at least one of the following characteristics: (1) direct interactions with each other over a period of time; (2) joint membership in a social category based on sex, race, or other attributes; (3) a shared, common fate, identity, or set of goals.
97
Describe the realistic conflict theory. What role does relative deprivation play in fostering prejudice?
The view that direct competition for valuable but limited resources breeds hostility between groups is called realistic conflict theory.
There is much more to prejudice than real competition. The realistic competition for resources may be in fact imagined. Also, people may become resentful of other groups-not because if their conviction that their own security or resources are threatened, but because of their sense of relative deprivation- the belief that they fare poorly compared to others.
98
Describe social identity theory. How does this theory account for ingroup favouritism?
According to social identity theory, each of us strives to enhance our self-esteem, which has two components 1) a personal identity, and 2) various collective or social identities that are based on the groups to which we belong.
In other words, people can boost their self esteem through achievement, or affiliation with successful groups.
Social identity leads us to derive pride from our connections with others, even if we don't receive any direct benefits from these others. Often though, we feel the need to belittle "them" in order to make "us" feel secure.
99
When and how do children first learn about their gender identity and about gender stereotypes?
Distinguish men from women well before their first birthday, identify themselves as boys or girls by three, form gender stereotypic beliefs and preferences about stories, and toys soon after, and favour their own gender over the other.
Children begin early to distinguish between masculine and feminine behaviours.
Children learn gender stereotypes and roles from their parents and other role models.
100
Identify the sociocultural factors that help to strengthen and maintain gender stereotypes.
- Mothers spend more time talking with boys about numbers than they do to girls, which may decrease girls awareness of these concepts.
- Mothers of daughters intervene more quickly when child is engaging in risky behaviour.
Social role theory: The theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women.
-Media effects: stereotyping exists in the media and can influence viewers.
101
Describe how discrimination is perceived by the target of discrimination. How does such perception affect the target's self-esteem and feelings of control?
Attributing negative feedback to discrimination can protect one's overall self esteem, however, it can also make people feel as if they have less persona; control over their lives.
Perceiving persistent discrimination over time is associated with a number of physical and mental health problems with mental health and drug use.
102
What is stereotype threat? Why does stereotype threat occur, and what are its potential consequences?
Stereotype threat is the experience of concern about being evaluated based on negative stereotypes about one's group.
It hangs like a "threat in the air" while the person
is in the stereotype-relevant situation. This threat can interfere with performance, by increasing anxiety and triggering distracting thoughts. Also, if the threat is persistent, it may lead people to disidentify with the institution, or domain-to dismiss it as no longer relevant to their self-esteem and identity.
One does not need to believe in a negative stereotype in order for it to have an effect. Just knowing about the stereotype is enough, especially if the person identifies strongly with the group and cares about doing well.
Stereotype threat exerts its control through multiple processes:
-Physiological arousal-may interfere with people's ability to perform well on the task at hand
- Causing threatened individuals to suppress thoughts impairs working memory
103
Describe the contact hypothesis. List the conditions that intergroup contact must satisfy for prejudice to decrease.
The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain situations.
Four conditions are deemed important for intergroup contact to serve as a treatment for racism:
1) Equal status: The contact should occur in circumstances that give the two groups equal status.
2) Personal interaction: The contact should involve one-on-one interactions among individual members of the two groups.
3) Cooperative Activities: Members of the two groups should join together in an effort to achieve super-ordinate goals.
104
Describe the jigsaw classroom and explain how it improves race relations.
The jigsaw classroom is a cooperative learning method. Students are assigned to small, racially and academically mixed groups. Each student is responsible for learning one piece of the puzzle after which all members take turns teaching their piece to the other students.
Compared to students in traditional classrooms, the jigsaw students grew to like each other more, liked school more, were less prejudiced, and had higher self-esteem. Academic test scores improved for minority students and stayed the same for white students.
105
Research on eye contact suggests that
a) frequent eye contact always signals affection and sincerity.
b) children under two years cannot follow gaze or maintain eye contact.
c) norms vary from culture to culture with regard to eye contact during conversations.
d) prolonged eye contact always signals confrontation.
c) norms vary from culture to culture with regard to eye contact during conversations
106
Joan gets annoyed when she burns her dinner, when she switches to the wrong channel on the television, or when she only gets a B on her social psychology exam. According to the covariation model, Joan's anno9yance has low
a) consistency.
b) consensus.
c) distinctiveness.
d) attribution.
c) distinctiveness.
107
John thinks that cohabitation is very common now. His opinion is based on recalling that a number of the couples he knows have recently moved in toge4ther. This is an example of the
a) false consensus effect
b) illusory correlation
c) representativeness heuristic
d) availability heuristic
d) availability heuristic
108
The actor-observer effect and the fundamental attribution error are different in that in the actor-observer effect
a) people exaggerate the importance of negative information and underestimate the importance of positive information.
b) people attribute dispositional factors as the cause of other people's behaviour and attribute situational factors as the cause of their own behaviour.
c) people disregard the importance of personal dispositions and overestimate situational factors as the cause of other people's behaviour.
d) people exaggerate the importance of dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors as the cause of other people's behaviour.
b) people attribute dispositional factors as the cause of other people's behaviour and attribute situational factors as the cause of their own behaviour.
109
The implicit personality theories that we hold about others are
a) based on our analysis of people's central traits.
b) the result of careful analysis of people's characteristics.
c) the result of unstated assumptions about people's characteristics.
d) based on attributional biases.
c) the result of unstated assumptions about people's characteristics.
110
Stereotypes are
a) acceptance or rejection of a person based on group membership.
b) beliefs that associate a whole group of people with certain characteristics.
c) intolerant attitudes toward a specific group.
d) intensely positive or negative emotions toward a specific group.
b) beliefs that associate a whole group of people with certain characteristics.
111
The out-group homogeneity effect refers to the perception that
a) all out-groups are similar to one another.
b) members of another group are more similar to one another than are the members of one's own group.
c) members of another group9 are more similar to one's own group than they really are.
d) members of the out-group are similar to members of one's own group.
b) members of another group are more similar to one another than are the members of one's own group.
112
According to Hamilton and associates, many instances of stereotyping arise and are maintained through the operation of
a) availability heuristics
b) illusory correlations
c) actor-observer bias
d) the kernel of truth hypothesis
b) illusory correlations
113
In the classic edxper4iments conducted by Sherif at the Robbers Cave summer camp, the two groups of young boys came to dislike each other very much after
a) a period of competition with each other
b) fighting a common enemy
c) working towards a common goal
d) the arrival of a female coach
a) a period of competition with each other
114
The contact hypothesis stipulates that prejudice can be reduced through intergroup contact if
a) the groups are of equal status.
b) the social norms should be supportive of inter-group contact.
c) the groups share a cooperative and mutually dependent goal.
d) all of the above are present.
d) all of the above are present.
115
The common ways of measuring attitudes include
a) attitude scales
b) behavioural observations
c) the Implicit Association Test
d) all of the above
d) all of the above
116
Research has failed to find strong attitude-behaviour relationships because
a) most attitude studies use self-report techniques.
b) most of the attitude-behaviour studies are seriously flawed.
c) there is a lack of match in the specificity between attitude measures and behavioural measures.
d) some observed behaviours may have been misinterpreted.
c) there is a lack of match in the specificity between attitude measures and behavioural measures.
117
In the Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) experiment, research participants spent time turning knobs and then told the next research participant that the task was interesting. The results of the experiment demonstrated
a) post-decision regret
b) an attitude-discrepant behaviour with justification
c) an attitude-discrepant behaviour with insufficient justification
d) an attitude-discrepant behaviour with insufficient deterrence
c) an attitude-discrepant behaviour with insufficient justification.
118
Which of the following is not a characteristic associated with central route processing in the dual-process model of persuasion?
a) important message content
b) a physically attractive speaker
c) a message delivered clearly by the speaker
d) high personal involvement among members of the audience
b) a physically attractive speaker
119
The _____ effect occurs when an earlier message has greater influence over acceptance than does a later message.
a) recency
b) primacy
c) sleeper
d) inoculation
b) primacy
120
According to implicit personality theories, which of the following would be most likely if we know Yael is an extrovert?
a) We would be less likely to form an overall positive impression of her.
b) We would be more likely to form an overall positive impression of her.
c) We would look for situations in which one ought to be extroverted.
d) We would assume she also possesses other traits related to extroversion.
d) We would assume that she also possesses other traits related to extroversion.
121
To detect deception, which of the following channels of communication should you attend to?
a) eye contact
b) body posture
c) speech pitch
d) facial expression
c) speech pitch
122
What does the study of social perception address?
a) how people explain their own behaviour
b) how people form impressions of others
c) the strategies people use to create a positive self-image
d) the way that we compare ourselves to others
b) how people form impressions of others
123
Though she doesn't usually watch television, Danielle never misses "My Big Fat Obnoxious Fiance" on Monday nights. Which of the following best describes Danielle's behaviour?
a) low in consistency
b) high in distinctiveness
c) low in consensus
d) high in covariation
b) high in distinctiveness
124
What is the confirmation bias?
a) People's tendency to agree with others whose attitudes differ from theirs
b) People's tendency to behave according to other's expectations
c) People's tendency to interpret earlier information to make it more consistent with subsequent information
d) People's tendency to interpret, seek and create information in ways that support existing beliefs
d) People's tendency to interpret, seek, and create information in ways that support existing beliefs.
125
According to your textbook, how was Aronson's jigsaw classroom work is similar to Sherif's Robbers Cave experiment?
a) both illustrated how social roles can influence the use of stereotypes
b) both illustrated how superordinate goals can reduce prejudice
c) both illustrated how social identification with a group can increase ingroup favouritism
d) both illustrated how overcoming feelings of relative deprivation can decrease prejudice
b) both illustrated how superordinate goals can reduce prejudice
126
Some people dislike immigrants because they fear that the immigrants will take jobs away from them. Which theory best explains these feelings?
a) social role theory
b) social identity theory
c) social categorization theory
d) realistic conflict theory
d) realistic conflict theory
127
Why do ingroup members oft4en display the outgroup homogeneity effect?
a) because ingroups and outgroups must compete for shared resources
b) because they lack familiarity with members of the outgroup
c) because they lack sufficient information to judge the variability of their own group
d) because they usually encounter the most typical members of the outgroup
b) because they lack familiarity with members of the outgroup
128
Which of the following mechanisms allows an individual to maintain a stereotype even in the face of strong contradictory evidence?
a) an illusory correlation
b) a jigsaw classroom
c) subtyping
d) self-fulfilling prophecies
c) subtyping
129
Jacqueline, an attitude researcher, is interested in how people feel about alcohol. Which of the following methods should she use in her research?
a) She should use a Likert scale because it is not as susceptible to social desirability effects as other methods
b) She should use a bogus pipeline because it is not as susceptible to social desirability effects as other methods
c) She should use a behavioural measure because it shows the attitude more clearly than other methods.
d) She should use a facial electromyograph because it shows the attitude more clearly than other methods.
B
130
In which of the following situations will attitude-behaviour correspondence be greatest?
a) when the person cannot see him- or herself
b) when social norms are well known
c) when the behaviour is not too highly specific
d) when the attitude is strongly held
d) when the attitude is strongly held
131
As personal involvement regarding an issue increases, which of the following is most likely to happen?
a) The quality of the arguments becomes a more important determinant of persuasion.
b) The credibility of the speaker becomes a more important determinant of persuasion.
c) The attractiveness of the speaker becomes a more important det3erminant of persuasion.
d) The likeability of the speaker becomes a more important determinant of persuasion.
a) The quality of the arguments becomes a more important determinant of persuasion.
132
Hope read a persuasive message written by a source whom she considered incompetent and trustworthy. According to the sleeper effect, what effect will that message most likely have on her attitude over time?
a) Her attitude will change over time in the direction advocated by the speaker.
b) Her agreement with the attitudinal message will first increase, and then decrease over time.
c) Her agreement with the attitudinal message will change over time in the opposite direction than that advocate4d by the speaker.
d) Her agreement with the attitudinal message will decrease over time.
a) her attitude will change over time in the direction advocated by the speaker
133
A social psychology graduate student who works long hours for little pay becomes increasingly convinced that she loves social psychology. What is the most likely cause of this student's attitude toward her chosen field of study?
a) psychological reactance
b) self-affirmation
c) insufficient justification
d) insufficient deterrence
c) insufficient justification
134
\*ESSAY QUESTION\*
Summarize how, according to Kelley, our attributions about someone's behaviour are affected by consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness information. Give an example from your daily life to illustrate your answer.
-developed the term "covariation principle"
-attributed to how people make attributions
-the principle is that in order for something to be attributed to the cause of the behaviour, it must be there when the behaviour occurs and absent when it does not.
- 3 kinds of covariation information that are useful in making attributions: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency
used example of file reviews:
1. consensus - go through old report cards to determine if the same concerns are being expressed over a period of time by different teachers.
2. distinctiveness - I look to whether the teacher feels that way about that student only or all students
3. consistency - I look to see if the teacher has these same concerns at all times of the day or only at certain times
135
\*ESSAY QUESTION\*
Compare the summation model with the averaging models of impression formation. Illustrate each model with an example.
Impression formation is the process of integrating information about a person to form a coherent impression. There are two models of impression formation: a summation model and an averaging model.
If a person uses a summation model of impression, the more positive traits or qualities you see or hear about in a person, the better. If a person uses an averaging model, the higher the average value of all the various traits or qualities the better.
For example, if you were trying to choose a new pet dog from a breeder...
1) an example of a summation model of impression would be if the breeder listed of 25 positive qualities of the dog and with each quality listed, you became more and more impressed.
2) an example of an averaging model of impression would be if the breeder listed a few qualities that were really important to you and others that weren't as important, those other qualities would be averaged with the few that you wanted to form the impression you have. By listing those extra qualities, it may serve to bring the impression down.
136
The impressions we form of others are influenced by superficial aspects of their appearance.
T or F
True
Research shows that first impressions are influenced by height, weight, clothing, facial characteristics, and others aspects of appearance.
137
Adaptively, people are skilled at knowing when someone is lying rather than telling the truth.
T or F
False
People frequently make mistakes in their judgments of truth and deception, too often accepting what others say at face value.
138
Like social psychologists, people are sensitive to situational causes when explaining the behaviour of others.
T or F
False.
In explaining the behaviour of others, people overestimate the importance of personal factors and overlook the impact of situations - a bias known as the "fundamental attribution error"
139
People are slow to change their first impressions on the basis of new information.
T or F
True
Studies have shown that once people form an impression of someone, they become resistant to change even when faced with contradictory new evidence.
140
The notion that we can create a "self-fulfilling prophecy" by getting others to behave in ways we expect is a myth.
T or F
False
In the laboratory and in the classroom, a perceiver's expectation can actually lead to its own fulfillment.
141
People are more accurate at judging the personality of friends and acquaintances than of strangers.
T or F
True
People often form erroneous impressions of strangers but tend to be more accurate in their judgments of friends and acquaintances.
142
Children do not tend to show biases based on race; it is only after they become adolescents that they learn to respond to people differently based on race.
T or F
False
Children learn about social categories quite early and use stereotypes when they are very young. Children show biases in favour of the racial ingroup on both explicit and implicit measures.
143
Very brief exposure to a member of a stereotyped group does not lead to biased judgments or responses, but longer exposure typically does.
T or F
False
Even very brief exposure to a member of a stereotyped group can activate the stereotype about the group, and this activation can bias subsequent judgments and reactions. Learning more information about the individual, however, sometimes reduces the effects of the stereotype.
144
Even brief exposure to sexist television commercials can significantly influence the behaviours of men and women.
T or F
True
Exposure to sexist commercials can make men behave in more sexist ways toward women and can make women engage in more stereotypical behaviours.
145
A black student is likely to perform worse on an athletic task if the task is described as one reflecting sports intelligence than if it is described as reflecting natural ability.
T or F
True
Research on stereotype threat suggests that black students are likely to be concerned about being seen through the lens of negative stereotypes concerning their intelligence if the task is described as one that is diagnostic of their sports intelligence - a situation that could undermine their performance. White students tend to show the opposite effect: Their performance is worse if the task is described as reflecting natural athletic ability.
146
Groups with a history of prejudice toward each other tend to become much less prejudiced soon after they are made to interact with each other in a desegregated setting.
T or F
False
When the contact between groups involves unequal status between them, lacks personal interaction between individual group members, and does not involve to cooperation to achieve shared goals, contact is not likely to reduce prejudice.
147
Researchers can tell if someone has a positive or negative attitude by measuring physiological arousal.
T or F
False
Measures of arousal can reveal how intensely someone feels, but not whether the person's attitude is positive or negative.
148
In reacting to persuasive communications, people are influenced more by superficial images than by logical arguments.
T or F
False
As indicated by the dual-process model of persuasion, people can be influenced by images or arguments - depending on their ability and motivation to think critically about the information.
149
People are more easily persuaded by commercial messages that are presented without their awareness.
T or F
False
There is no research evidence to support the presumed effects of subliminal ads.
150
The more money you pay people to tell a lie, the more they will come to believe it.
T or F
False
Cognitive dissonance studies show that people believe the lies they are underpaid to tell as a way to justify their own actions.
151
People often come to like what they suffer for.
T or F
True
Studies show that the more people work or suffer for something, the more they come to like it as a way to justify their effort.
