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From Flashcardlet > ⚡️⚡️⚡️chem > Flashcards

⚡️⚡️⚡️chem Flashcards

0
Q

Do the overlapping orbitals have to be the same type when a bond is formed?

A

No

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1
Q

How many p orbitals are required to form two sp hybrid orbitals?

A

1

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2
Q

Order the following in increasing bond length: double bond, single bond, triple bond

A

Triple bond, double bond, single bond

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3
Q

What is the electron pair geometry of a molecule with 6 domains?

A

Octahedral

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4
Q

How can a molecule have an expanded valence shell?

A

The central atoms has a principal quantum number greater than or equal to 3. (ex. SF6)

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5
Q

What are the basic rules of molecular orbital theory?

A
  1. Regions in which the phases of the atomic orbitals are the same add constructively to produce large lobes, but regions in which the phases are opposite add deconstructively and often annihilate.
  2. The number of molecular orbitals produced must equal the number of atomic orbitals used in their construction.
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6
Q

The line between two atoms in a bond.

A

Internuclear axis

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7
Q

What is the distance where attractions balance repulsions in a compound?

A

Bond length

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8
Q

Bonds that place bonding electron density above and below, but not on, the internuclear axis.
Produces from the side-on overlap and contain a nodal plane through the internuclear axis.

A

Pi bonds

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9
Q

What is the formula for finding the formal charge of an atom?

A

FC of an atom= VE- NBE - 1/2(BE)

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10
Q

What is the common name of CH4?

A

Methane

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11
Q

What are the two ways that MO’s can be represented using AO’s?

A

MOs can be represented by either the resulting combination or as the combing orbitals
(Book uses the latter method where spheres showing the sign and relative magnitude of the contributing AOs will be shown)

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12
Q

Which element can only form a duet of electrons in covalent bonds?

A

Hydrogen

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13
Q

AB3E2

A

T- shaped

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14
Q

How do electrons occupying bonding orbitals affect the energy of the system?

A

They lower the energy of system and make the MO more bonding

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15
Q

Bonds in which the bonding electron density falls on the internuclear axis.
Result from end-on overlap and place electron density on the internuclear axis

A

Sigma bonds

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16
Q

AB3

A

Trigonal planar

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17
Q

A theory that states that each bond results from the overlap of two atomic orbitals on 2 adjacent atoms.
The bonding electrons in such bonds are localized in the region between the two tons.

A

Valence bond theory

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18
Q

How many p orbitals does an sp hybridized atom have available to form pi bonds?

A

2

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19
Q

The tendency of nonmetals to obtain 8 valence electrons.

A

Octet rule

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20
Q

AB5E1

A

Square pyramidal

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21
Q

What are the 3 types of bonding?

A

Covalent bonding
Ionic bonding
Metallic bonding

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22
Q

What is the bond order of a single bond?

A

1

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23
Q

AB3E1

A

Trigonal pyramidal

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24
Q

According to molecular orbital theory, what do bonding interactions result from?

A

They result when the interacting lobes of the atomic orbitals have the same phase.

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25
Q

What is the electron pair geometry of a molecule with 3 domains?

A

trigonal planar

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26
Q

How are the properties of ionic and covalent compounds different when they are in liquid phases?

A

In the liquid state, ionic compounds form ions and are good conductors of electricity, while covalent compounds do not form ions and are poor conductors of electricity

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27
Q

How are 3 sp2 hybrid orbitals formed?

A

Produced by combining one s and two p orbitals
Two p orbitals are used in hybridization, therefore only one p orbital remains to form a pi bond
Have one double bond

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28
Q

T/F Formal charge is always the actual charge of an atom.

A

False

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29
Q

How do you form a constructive wave?

A

By adding the regions on the same side.

Produces a region of increased amplitude

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30
Q

How many pi/sigma bonds do double bonds contain?

A

One sigma bond and one pi bond

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31
Q

It describes the shape adopted by only the atoms

A

Molecular shape

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32
Q

What results from the combination of opposite orbital which produces a nodal plane perpendicular to the bonding axis?

A

Sigma* bonding orbital

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33
Q

Orbitals constructed from the addition and subtraction of one s and one p orbital
(s+p and s-p)

A

Sp Hybrid orbitals

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34
Q

Pairs of electrons that are not involved in bonding.

A

Lone pairs

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35
Q

forms when two atoms share two pairs of electrons

A

Double bond

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36
Q

The combinations of s and p orbitals used to construct new orbitals for orbitals that adopt the geometries of two, three, and four electron groups.

A

Hybridization orbitals

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37
Q

In a molecular compound, which element is named first?

A

The least electronegative element

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38
Q

What bond is formed when the difference in electronegativity between two atoms is between 0 and 2?

A

Polar covalent bond

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39
Q

What is the common name of NH3?

A

Ammonia

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40
Q

AB5

A

Trigonal bipyramidal

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41
Q

How many sigma bonds can a single bond contain?

A

Each bond can only contain one sigma bond!

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42
Q

What happens to the electron density between the bound atoms in the combination of orbitals of the same phase?

A

It is increased making it the pi bonding orbital

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43
Q

How many electrons does each line in a bond represent?

A

Two

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44
Q

What is the max number of of overlapping atomic orbitals that can be used to produce a single bond?

A

2

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45
Q

Forms when two atoms share three pairs of electrons

A

Triple bond

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46
Q

What is an example of when the overlapping orbitals are not the same?

A

In an H-F bond
There is an overlap between the 1s orbital of H and the 2p orbital of F.
The lone pairs on fluorine would reside in its s and remaining p orbitals.

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47
Q

What are the relative strengths of the lone pair bonding, bonding pair-bonding pair, and lone pair- lone pair interactions?

A

Lone pair-lone pair (strongest)
Lone pair- bonding pair (2nd strongest)
Bonding pair-bonding pair (weakest)

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48
Q

What is are the exceptions to the octet rule?

A

Free radicals and expanded valence shells

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49
Q

What must the number of orbitals produced equal when mixing orbitals?

A

The number of atomic orbitals that are mixed

Ex. Mixing orbitals A and B must produce two new orbitals.

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50
Q

What is the relationship between bond strength, bond length, and bond order?

A

As bond order increases, bond strength increases and bond length decreases
(This cannot be applied to bonds of different types)

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51
Q

How are two sp hybrid orbitals formed?

A

By combining one s and one o orbital.
Only one p orbital is used in their construction, so two p orbitals are available to form pi bonds. (Sp hybrid orbitals form 2 bonds- one triple bond or two double bonds)

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52
Q

AB4

A

Tetrahedral

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53
Q

How are four sp3 hybrid orbitals formed?

A

produces by combining the s and all 3 p orbitals
No p orbitals are available to form pi bonds
Form only single bonds

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54
Q

How do electrons occupying the antibonding orbitals affec the energy of the system?

A

They raise the energy of the system and the MO ales bonding

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55
Q

AB2E1

A

Bent

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56
Q

What are the prefixes in molecular compounds based on?

A

The number of atoms in the formula

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57
Q

AB6

A

Octahedral

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58
Q

How are orbitals needed to account for the molecular geometry of larger molecules formed?

A

They are produced by mixing the atomic orbitals.

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59
Q

AB4E1

A

Seesaw

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60
Q

order the following in increasing bond strengths: triple bond, single bond, double bond

A

Single bond, double bond, triple bond

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61
Q

A diatomic molecule in which the two nuclei are nuclei of different elements.
MOs are not composed of equal amounts of the AOs

A

Heteronuclear diatomic molecule

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62
Q

The separation between the nuclei at the minimum energy

A

Bond length

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63
Q

When an atom has more than an octet of electrons.

A

Expanded valence shell

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64
Q

What does the color of each AO represent in diagrams?

A

Its phase in the combination

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65
Q

Which type of bond has the largest difference in electronegativity?

A

Ionic bond

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66
Q

What bond angle is formed between 3 electron groups that reside in the same plane?

A

120 degrees

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67
Q

What is a type of bond formed when the difference of electronegativity of two atoms is 0?

A

Covalent bond

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68
Q

How do you name molecular compounds?

A

Prefix+ name of 1st element

Prefix+ name of 2nd element+ide

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69
Q

The difference between the number of valence electrons in an isolated atom and the number of electrons assigned to that atom in a Lewis structure. Formal charge is the charge an atom would have if all electrons were shared equally.

A

Formal charge

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70
Q

What is the bond order or a bond (in relation to pi and sigma bonds)?

A

The sum of sigma and pi bonds that it contains.

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71
Q

What is the bond angle between the two electron groups in a linear molecule?

A

180 degrees

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72
Q

A model that shows the atoms as spheres and bonds as the penetration of two spheres into one another.
Gives the truest picture of the molecule.
Lone pairs are not usually included.

A

Space filling model

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73
Q

How are the molecular structures of ionic and covalent compounds different?

A

Ionic compounds tend to form crystal lattices of alternating ions
Covalent compounds tend to exist as individual molecules with shared electrons

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74
Q

an average of all contributing resonance forms- the molecule doesn’t change back and forth between the resonance structures

A

Real structure of a resonance hybrid

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75
Q

What is the bond angle of two sp hybrid orbitals?

A

180 degrees

76
Q

AB4E2

A

Square planar

77
Q

According to MO, Characterized by An accumulation of electron density between the nuclei, which lowers the energy of the molecular orbital relative to that of the interaction atomic orbitals.

A

Bonding interactions

78
Q

What does each bonding orbital generally contain?

A

One electron

79
Q

T/F Resonance structures are not real bonding depictions.

A

True

80
Q

According to the valence bond theory, what happens when the orbital overlap?

A

The two electrons pair (one electron from each bonding orbital)

81
Q

Is a pi bond or a sigma bond stronger?

A

A sigma bond is stronger

82
Q

What does hybridization help to describe about an atom?

A

The structure and bonding around the atom

83
Q

Relates covalent bonds to ionic bonds. Some bonds are so polar that they are almost ionic. These have a higher percent ionic character.

A

Percent ionic character

84
Q

Which type of bond has the smallest difference in electronegativity?

A

Covalent bond

85
Q

What must the sum of formal charges of the atoms in a molecule equal?

A

The actual charge on the molecule.

86
Q

What does it mean to say that the electrons in a resonance hybrid are “delocalized?”

A

Their density is spread over a few adjacent atoms

87
Q

What are the orbitals that adopt the geometries for two, three, and four electron groups be constructed from?

A

Combinations of the atoms’s s and p orbitals.

88
Q

What is the bond order of a double bond?

A

2

89
Q

The amount by which the energy of two atoms is reduced by forming the bond

A

Bond energy

90
Q

A bond in which a lone pair is converted to a covalent bond.
Produced in Lewis acid-base reactions.

A

Coordinate covalent bond

91
Q

AB2

A

Linear

92
Q

What plane (equatorial or axial) are lone pairs always located on?

A

Equatorial plane?

93
Q

What is a covalent bond with greater electron density around one of the two atoms?

A

Polar covalent bond (polar bond)

94
Q

Which two structure have the most common structures to have an expanded octet?

A

Trigonal bipyramidal

Octahedral

95
Q

What is the electron pair geometry of a molecule with 5 domains?

A

Trigonal bi pyramidal

96
Q

Which orbitals in the three sp2 hybrid orbital are used to form hybrid orbital and which are used to form pi bonds?

A

px and py orbitals are used to construct the hybrid orbitals
Pz orbital is available for pi bonding

97
Q

What is the conclusion drawn from the knowledge that hybrid orbitals are constructed to have the geometry of the electron group?

A

Hybrid orbitals are occupied by lone pairs and sigma bonds.

The p orbitals that are not used in the constructions of the hybrid orbitals are used to form pi bonds.

98
Q

How are covalent bonds formed?

A

By sharing electrons

99
Q

How do you form a destructive wave?

A

Adding regions on opposite sides.

Produces a wave with a lower amplitude

100
Q

How does the melting point of an ionic compound compare the melting point of a covalent compound?

A

The melting point of an ionic compound is high (all are solid at room temperature)
The melting point of a covalent compound varies, but is typically low.

101
Q

What results from the combination of lobes of opposite phase interacting to produce a nodal plane perpendicular to the bonding axis?

A

antibonding pi* orbital

102
Q

Which type of MO has the lowest energy?

A

Bonding MOs

103
Q

Which orbitals in the two sp hybrid orbital are used to form hybrid orbital and which are used to form pi bonds?

A

The sigma bonds are made across the z axis
S and pz orbitals are used to make hybrid orbitals
Px and py are used to form the pi bonds

104
Q

What are the characteristics of the best structure of a molecule?

A
  • has the least amount of formal charges
  • has the smallest formal charge numbers
  • has the least separation of charges
  • has the least number of same type charge on adjacent atoms
  • has negative formal charges on the electronegative elements
105
Q

The number of shared pairs that a bond contains.

A

Bond order

106
Q

What is the bond angle between any two groups in the four- electron group arrangement?

A

109 degrees

107
Q

What is the name of N2Cl4?

A

Dinitrogen tetrachloride

108
Q

What is the bond angle in a three sp2 bond?

A

120 degrees

109
Q

The charge the atom would have if all the bonds were ionic- if all the bonding electrons were assigned to the more electronegative atom in each bond.

A

Oxidation state/ number

110
Q

How do you find the number of lone pairs around a central atom?

A

LP= 1/2(group number- oxidation state)

111
Q

How can the hybridization of an atom be determined?

A

From the number of electron groups around it since the number of hybrid orbitals must equal the number of electron groups
Ex. An atom with four electron groups requires 4 hybrid orbitals, so the atom must be sp3 hybridized

112
Q

characterized by An annihilation of electron density between the two atoms

A

Anti bonding interaction

113
Q

How is the the bond order determined in the molecular orbital theory?

A

BO= 1/2(number of bonding electrons- number of antibonding electrons)

114
Q

How is the relative bond length determined?

A

Atoms with smaller nuclei have a smaller bond length than atoms with larger nuclei

115
Q

How are antibonding MO’s distinguished?

A

With an *
Ex. Sigma* and pi* (pronounced sigma star and pi star) are the antibonding combinations that contain nodal planes perpendicular to the bonding axis.

116
Q

What does the size of the sphere in each AO diagram represent?

A

Its relative contribution to the MO

Ex. When two AO’s are the same size, it means the the electron density in the MO is distributed equally over both atoms.

117
Q

The process by which hybrid orbitals are formed

A

Hybridization

118
Q

How can MOs be formed?

A

By the combination of two s orbitals on different atoms

By the head on combination of p orbitals

119
Q

A diatomic molecule in which the two nuclei are nuclei of the same element

  • AOs are identical and contribute equally to the MO
  • electron density in each MO is symmetric and the bonds are non-polar
A

Homonuclear diatomic molecule

120
Q

What does the bonding character of an MO spread over several atoms depend on?

A

The relative number of bonding and antibonding interactions.

121
Q

How do the energies of the sigma and sigma star orbitals relate to the orbitals used to construct them?

A
  1. The energy of bonding interactions is lower than that of the atomic orbitals. (ΔE)
  2. The energy of the antibonding orbitals is higher than that of the atomic orbitals (ΔE*)
  3. ΔE* is greater than ΔE
122
Q

How do you determine which possible structure of a molecule is most likely/reasonable?

A

Find the formal charges on each atom in each possibility and whichever one has the least amount of formal charges/lowest formal charges is probably the most likely.

123
Q

A model in which atoms are represented as spheres and bonds are cylinders.
Best representation to use when discussing molecular structure because the bond angles are easy to see.
Lone pairs are not usually included.

A

Ball-and-stick model

124
Q

What are the steps to drawing a Lewis structure?

A
  1. Determine the number of electrons required to give each non-hydrogen atom 8 electrons (8x non hydrogen atoms + 2x hydrogen atoms)
  2. Determine the number of valence electrons in the structure.
  3. Find the number of shared pairs in the structure (SP= 1/2(ER-VE)
  4. Draw molecule!
125
Q

How do you determine the bonding character of an MO?

A
  • antibonding MOs are produced when the number of bonding interactions is less than the number of bonding interactions
  • nonbonding MOs are formed when the number of boning and antibonding interactions are the same or there are no interactions between adjacent atoms.
  • bonding MOs are formed when the number of bonding interactions is greater than the number of antibonding interactions.
126
Q

Which bond is shorter? H-H bond or Cl (triple bonded to) Cl

A

H-H bond
- even though the bond order of the H-H bond is lower, the H-H bond is shorter because the atoms being bound are much smaller

127
Q

One of two or more Lewis structures for a single molecule that cannot be represented accurately by only one Lewis structure.

A

Resonance structure

128
Q

The angles formed by the intersection of the bonds

An important characteristic of molecular shape

A

Bond angles

129
Q

A representation of a 3-D molecule.
Lines represent bonds between two atoms that lie in the plane of the paper.
Solid wedges show atoms that lie in front of the plane of the paper.
Dashed wedges indicate bonds to atoms that lie behind the plane of the paper.
Lone pairs can be included.

A

Line-wedge-dash representation

130
Q

What bond is formed when the difference in electronegativity between two atoms is greater than 2?

A

Ionic bond

131
Q

What is the electron pair geometry of a molecule with 4 domains?

A

Tetrahedral

132
Q

What is the electron pair geometry of a molecule with 2 domains?

A

Linear

133
Q

What must happen to the other orbital if both electrons (in a lone pair) reside in one orbital after bonding?

A

The other orbital must be empty.

134
Q

Why do atoms share electrons in covalent bonds?

A

They share electrons so that each element involved can achieve a full outer shell of electrons.

135
Q

States that atomic orbitals on different atoms mix to produce bonds that can be localized between two atoms but are frequently delocalized over several atoms.

A

Molecular orbital theory

136
Q

AB2E2

A

Bent

137
Q

A representation of the molecule that shows the distribution of the valence electrons of its constituent atoms.

  • shows structure and bonding within a molecule
  • Lewis structures represent atoms that are about to bond
A

Lewis structure

138
Q

How many sigma/pi bonds are in a triple bond?

A

One sigma bond and two pi bonds

139
Q

What does an F-F bond result from?

A

The overlapping of two p orbitals.

Valence electron configuration of fluorine is 2s2 2p5

140
Q

Which type of MO has the highest energy?

A

Antibonding MOs

141
Q

Which molecular theory has a more powerful predictive power?

A

Molecular orbital theory

142
Q

According to MO, what are antibonding interactions? How are they produced?

A

They are produced when the interacting lobes of atomic orbitals are of opposite phase
Contain nodal planes perpendicular to the bonding axis

143
Q

What are the rules for constructing MOs?

A
  1. The number of MO’s equals the number of AO’s used to construct them (N)
  2. The enemies of the MO’s increase with the number of nodal planes they contain. the lowest energy MO contains no nodal planes, the next highest contains no nodal planes, and so on the highest energy MO, which contains (N-1) nodal planes (one between each pair of atoms)
  3. The nodal planes are placed symmetrically even if it means placing them on an atom.
  4. Nodal planes cannot be placed on adjacent atoms.
144
Q

How are ionic bonds formed?

A

By transferring electrons

145
Q

What results from the combination of orbitals that increases electron density on the bonding axis?

A

A sigma bonding orbital

146
Q

How are many properties of a molecule determined in the MO theory?

A

HOMO- highest occupied molecular orbital

LUMO- lowest unoccupied molecular orbital

147
Q

Where is the electron density of an element the highest?

A

Around and between the nuclei

148
Q

How are the two new orbitals formed when mixing orbitals?

A

(Orbitals A and B are mixed)
The first orbital is formed by adding A+B
The second orbital is formed when A-B

149
Q

AB2E3

A

Linear

150
Q

What is the bond order of a triple bond?

A

3

151
Q

How does the placement of atoms and lone pairs vary by resonance structure?

A

Resonance structures have the same relative placement of atoms, but different locations of bonding and lone pairs.

152
Q

What are the bond angles of four sp3 hybrid orbitals?

A

109 degrees

153
Q

What does the bond length depend on?

A

The atoms bound.

154
Q

IMF summary (list top strongest energy to weakest energy)

A 
Ion dipole
Hydrogen bond
Dipole dipole
Ion induced dipole 
London dispersion forces
155
Q

Exert pressure

A

Gases

156
Q

Equation for pressure and what it’s measure in

A

Force/ area

Pascals (Newton/ meters squared)

157
Q

Polarizability increases with:

A

Greater number of electrons (higher molar mass)

More diffuse an electron cloud (less electronegative)

158
Q

Particles Very close together

A

Solid

159
Q

Is the temperature above which the gas cannot be made to liquefy, no matter how great the applied pressure

A

Critical temperature

160
Q

When the cohesive forces are greater than the adhesive forces of the container, the meniscus is —

A

Convex

161
Q

Particles at the top of a liquid have the — surface tension

A

Highest

162
Q

The resistance of a liquid to flow, very viscous- doesn’t flow

A

Viscosity

163
Q

At the same temperature, light gases will have — speed than heavier gases but the same —

A

Faster

Kinetic energy

164
Q

Between polar molecules. Stronger than LDF

A

Dipole-dipole forces

165
Q

STP

A

0 degrees Celsius
1 atm or 273 K
760 Torr

166
Q

Minimum pressure that must be applied to make gas liquefy at critical temperature

A

Critical pressure

167
Q

Gas is measured in — or —

A

mmHg

Torr

168
Q

Pressure exerted by vapor on the surface of a liquid

A

Vapor pressure

169
Q

Temperature at which liquid boils where the external pressure is 1 atm

A

Normal boiling point

170
Q

The ease with which electron distribution in the atom/ molecules can be distorted

A

Polarizability

171
Q

Standard molar volume

A

22.4 L of space

172
Q

Reached when the rate of evaporation and condensation are equivalent

A

Dynamic equilibrium

173
Q

Gases are separated by large distance
Gas particles are in constant motion (if they collide the collisions are perfectly elastic)
Gas particles do not exert repulsive or attractive forces on each other
Any two gases at the temperature have the same kinetic energy; the average KE is proportional to temperature

A

Kinetic molecular theory of gases

174
Q

Electrons move to one side and create partial positive and negative charges

A

Instantaneous dipole

175
Q

Normal boiling point is at — atm

A

1

176
Q

Molecular force within bonds (the physical bond)

A

Intramolecular

177
Q

Manifestation of cohesive forces between liquid molecules where they tend to minimize their surface area by forming spheres

A

Surface tension

178
Q

Leads to weak attractions which can induce dipoles like a chain reaction

A

Instantaneous dipole

179
Q

Dispersion forces generally — as molar mass —

A

Increase

Increases

180
Q

Condition where all 3 phases can exists in equilibrium

A

Triple point

181
Q

Molecular forces between molecules, aka non-covalent interactions
Very important for determining states of matter
Weaker than bonds
Things like melting point, boiling point, freezing point

A

Intermolecular forces

182
Q

Particles Closer together than a gas

A

Liquid

183
Q

Particles are spaced far apart

A

Gas

184
Q

Temp at which vapor pressure is equal to external pressure

A

Boiling point

185
Q

In everything, all nonpolar things have this IMF
Weakest IMF
Caused by fluctuations in electron distribution
Instantaneous dipole

A

London dispersion forces

186
Q

When cohesive forces are not as string as adhesive forces, a — meniscus occurs

A

Concave

187
Q

Type of dipole-dipole interaction between a H and an electronegative O, N, or F which can interact with a different O, N, or F in another molecule; not a real bond, just very strong

A

Hydrogen bond

From Flashcardlet (20 decks)

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