China 2.2 Flashcards
(172 cards)
1
Q
What was the economy like in 1949?
A
Chinese economy was largely dependent on agriculture - backward and inefficient. Not yet industrialised.
2
Q
Were Mao’s reforms purely economic or ideological?
A
Mao believed that modern industry was needed to create a truly socialist nation - food supplies had to be increased, not to improve the lives of the peasantry, but the growing urban workers.
Similarly, collectivisation was not only motivated by the economic benefits of large-scale production, but also by the belief that people living together and sharing everything would bring true communism closer to reality.
Mao often dismissed the advice of experts and preferred to put blind faith in mass mobilisation.
3
Q
How did Mao adapt Marxism?
A
Mao argued that peasants would be the ‘vanguards of the revolution’ despite Marx arguing they were too traditional and conservative to demand revolution.
4
Q
What did Mao say about peasants?
A
Mao noted they were ‘the most responsive to Communist Party leadership’.
5
Q
What was the Agrarian Reform Law and when was it established?
A
The law laid down the legal framework under which land reform took place, it claimed it would eradicate exploitation of peasants by the ‘gentry-landlord’ class as a first step towards industrialisation.
Landlords would have their property seized and redistributed ‘to the tiller’ (peasants who worked the land).
6
Q
What percentage of farmers rented their land in 1949? What did this say about exploitation?
A
Only 10-15% of farmers rented their land so exploitation was not really a problem.
7
Q
Why did land reform risk losing peasant support?
A
In some areas already owned by the Communists, many peasants already owned the land and they hoped the new regime would be able to provide stability and peace. These peasants, who often had influence over poorer peasants, were useful supporters for the Party and the regime did not want to alienate them.
8
Q
Did landlords dominate society to the extent of being a ‘ruling class’ and were they universally hated?
A
Not really. Mao needed to create the impression that such a ruling class did exist and deserved to be hated in order to rally the peasants and justify his claim to have successfully adapted Marxism to fit Chinese society.
Interpretations differ due to lack of detailed evidence - only systematic and detailed survey of farmers from 1929-33 by Nanking University of 16,000 across 22 provinces - only 6% were tenants and generally not poorer than those who owned the land they farmed.
9
Q
What were Poor Peasant Associations and who organised them?
A
Poor Peasant Organisations determined the class of a peasants. They were organised by work teams. Work teams were often made up of young people from newly liberated cities, hastily trained and sent out with no experience of rural life or understanding of their conditions.
10
Q
How was anti-landlord paranoia created in villages?
A
Peasants were encouraged to round up their landlords, who were then subjected to struggle meetings in front of the whole village where they would be forced to admit their crimes as ‘class enemies’. Often sentenced to death.
Work teams put considerable time and effort into whipping up anti-landlord paranoia in villages.
11
Q
Why did Mao specifically attack landlords if they weren’t a ‘ruling class’?
A
Landlords were an easy target which Communists could generate a sense of class-consciousness - vital for sustaining the revolution - unlike businessmen their assets (lands) could not be transferred so could not flee to Taiwan.
12
Q
By the summer of 1952, what was the impact of land reform?
A
Estimated 88% of households had taken part with 43% of the land redistributed to 60% of the population.
13
Q
What was the agricultural production rate between 1950 and 1952?
A
15% per annum
14
Q
By the end of 1951, how many landlords had lost their land, what were the official death figures and what was the estimated number?
A
By the end of 1951, 10 million landlords had lost their land. Official figures - 700,000 deaths, 3 million estimated.
15
Q
Why did the CCP move to collectivistaion?
A
The Party never intended the peasantry to become established as a new class of landowners, therefore began the move to collectivisation rapidly.
16
Q
What were Mutual Aid Teams and when were they first introduced?
A
December 1951. They would pool labour, animals and equipment, while retaining their rights of private ownership.
17
Q
Why were MATs rational and popular?
A
This was rational: households with more land than they could farm efficiently could combine those with more labour than they needed, and both benefit. This happened anyways at busy times of the year, but it was now formalised as a permanent arrangement and managed by the peasant associations.
Richer peasants were excluded and MATs were enthusiastically accepted because they mirrored the already common practice. They were particularly beneficial to the poorer peasants.
18
Q
By 1952, what percentage of all peasants’ households belonged to a MAT?
A
40%
19
Q
What were Agricultural Producers Cooperatives (APCs) and why were they introduced?
A
MATs were pragmatic and popular but Communist leaders were worried they still allowed the continued existence of capitalist ideas (buying and selling land, and hiring of labourers).
In 1953, the second stage towards collectivisation began. Successful MATs were encouraged to combine and form APCs of 40-50 households, where land could also be pooled and could therefore be consolidated into larger units and cultivated more efficiently than in traditional strips.
20
Q
How were profits shared out?
A
Profits were shared out at the end of the year, using a points system according to the value of the land, labour and tools they had contributed. The peasants received payment in grain or money.
21
Q
Why were APCs less popular than MATs?
A
The peasants did not want to share their newly acquired land.
22
Q
By June 1955 what percentage of households had joined APCs?
A
14%
23
Q
Why did Mao call for a slowdown in Spring 1953?
A
In desire to respond to Mao’s wishes for faster change to collectivisation, many local officials rushed into unplanned (not organised into MATs first) APCs - went into debt as they had to borrow money to buy equipment.
24
Q
Why did Mao renew pressure to join APCs in 1954?
A
Peasants started buying and selling land and food (capitalist) - Mao condemned this rejection of revolutionary values and the slowdown as ‘rash retreat’.
25
What was the increase in production in 1953 and 1954 and what were the consequences?
Less than 2%.
The 1954 poor harvest prompted the government to requisition grain to feed the cities.
26
What were the effects of grain requisitioning?
Rural protest
27
What was Mao’s response?
Mao announced the policy of ‘Stop, Contract and Develop’ (another U-turn) - halt of APCs for 18 months.
28
What did Gradualists like Liu Shaoqi and Zhou Enlai say about China’s agricultural policy in regards to collectivisation?
Gradualists like Liu Shaqoi and Premier Zhou Enlai claimed that China was not yet ready for large-scale farming as it lacked machinery and fertilisers. They denounced the ‘premature’ establishment of APCs. Mid-1955, Vice Premier Li Fuchun told the National People’s Congress that only ‘with modern techniques, can the productive forces of agriculture be greatly developed.…..To meet the demands of the nation’s industrialisation.’
29
How did Mao respond?
Mao disagreed and in July 1955 reversed his policy of ‘Stop, Contract and Develop’, demanding an increase in the pace of reform towards full collectivisation, and an end to all private property.
He argued that collectivisation was necessary to create a socialist society and mass mobilisation could make up for any shortfall in mechanical equipment.
He also believed that slow agricultural growth would jeopardise industrialisation because exporting food was the only way China could pay for imports of advanced technology from the Soviet Union.
30
What did Chen Boda have to say about victims of the famine?
‘An unavoidable phenomenon of our onward march’.
31
By 1956 how many households were in APC and how many were farming privately?
75 million households were in APCS
3% were farming privately.
32
What did Mao publish to foster the illusion that the peasantry wanted collectivisation?
‘Socialist Upsurge in the Countryside’ - series of selectively edited compilation of favourable reports on collectives by local activists.
33
What was the likely reason for Mao’s drive for collectivisation?
Mao’s fear of unreliable food supply to cities if peasants owned the land.
34
What did Mao say about freedom and socialism in regards to peasants?
Mao said ‘the peasants want freedom, but we want socialism’ - feared if given freedom, peasants would return to capitalism.
35
What were HPCs and by January of 1956 how many APCs were HPCs?
APCs became higher (HPCs) consisting of 200-300 households where peasant families no longer owned the land or equipment, and the profits were shared according to work points earned by labour contributed, not land or equipment provided. By January 1956, 30.7% of APCs were HPCs.
36
(Consequence)
Was collectivisation an ideological success?
Yes. The state now owned means of production of food - the land, as membership was compulsory (except for a few private plots). It was Chinese Marxism in action.
37
(Consequences)
Was collectivisation a political success for Mao?
Unexpected pace tribute to Mao’s authority within the Party and outmanoeuvring of gradualists + actual process greatly increased control the Party exerted over local people.
‘New Mao’ emerged - by mid 1950s such was Mao’s personal prestige and authority he was able to override the Gradualists - feared being denounced as Rightists they had no choice but to follow Mao’s lead.
However collectivisation marked a distinct change with the CCP - peasantry relationship - peasants now servants of the Party instead of loyal allies + speed made Mao overconfident.
38
(Consequences)
Was collectivisation an economic success?
Economically - First Five-Year Plan - 3.8% growth - insufficient for faster-growing industrial workforce. But cultivated land per head and labour productivity was low - would have been hard for peasants to produce a surplus - worsened by lack of incentives.
39
Why did Mao want communes? - Quote?
Mao first built communism in the countryside first (communes) to fit Marxist theory in China. Mao - ‘Without socialisation of agriculture, there can be no complete, consolidate socialism,’
40
How much did grain production rise in 1957?
1%
41
Why was forced requisitioning risky in China?
Almost 70% of the CCP were from rural backgrounds - taking too much grain risked alienating their support.
42
When was Mao’s fact-finding mission and what conclusion did he come to?
Mao embarked on a fact-finding mission in Spring 1958. Mao returned to Beijing convinced he had backing of peasantry and local Party activists for a more collective ambition scheme. First-hand evidence convinced Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping.
43
What was Mao’s commune policy summed up into one quote?
‘Walking on two legs’.
44
What would peasants be mobilised on within the Communes?
Industry, agriculture and water conservancy and other civil engineering schemes.
45
In how long did Mao say that China would overtake Britain?
7.5 years
46
How did Mao hope to achieve this policy?
Mao did not personally direct commune policy, but his public endorsement was enough to quicken the pace. He hoped to achieve his policy through decentralising economic planning - avoiding government technical experts.
47
How many households would be in the average commune?
5500 households
48
What did Mao believe would allow for industry and agriculture to be developed at the same time and why?
Mao believed mass mobilisation would allow industry and agriculture to be developed simultaneously within the communes - peasants no longer dependent on urban industry.
Mao believed the masses could become both ‘Red and Expert’, ideologically committed but also technically knowledgeable and that human will, far more than technology, will overcome anything.
49
The first commune
Where?
What?
When?
First commune established in Henan province in July 1958 - ‘Sputnik Commune’ - in honour of the Soviet satellite - first ever - represented the strength of the Communist world. Merged 27 collectives (9000 households)
50
In August 1958, what happened that accelerated the transformation of co-operatives into communes?
In August 1958, Mao declared ‘The people’s commune is great.’ - next day headline in newspapers, accelerating the transformation of co-operatives into communes.
51
By the end of 1958, _________ co-operatives had been reorganised into _________ communes. The Party claimed that ___% of the peasant population lived in communes - almost half a billion.
740,000
26,000
99%
52
What was the vision behind communes?
Closer to the vision of a perfect communist society. Mess halls enabled communal eating and boarding schools would be provided.
Mao believed that with women no longer forced to do housework they could join the men in the fields and factories. Propaganda celebrated these ‘iron women’ for taking their full and equal role in economic production.
Grandparents no longer forced to help care for grandchildren - free to spend time with other elderly people in ‘happiness homes.’
53
What percentage of women laboured in agriculture between 1958 and 1959?
90%
54
What was the reality of Communal living?
Forced into one location - bombarded with propaganda.
All able-bodied citizens between 15 and 50 belonged to the commune militia.
Poor quality food caused diets to worsen.
55
What was the effect of comunes on family life and women?
Devastating results for family life. Traditional family meal replaced by mess halls, surrounded by strangers. Parents lost influence over raising of their children and grandparents became isolated from their relatives. Parents were encouraged to abandon ‘bourgeois emotional attachments,’ in favour of a regimented lifestyle where they worked for communal good. If sleeping in communal dormitories, couples could only sleep together on arranged conjugal visits. Life in the communes was harder. Women were forced to carry out harsh physical labour that had previously been the role of men.
56
What was the four pests campaign?
Launched in 1958, dedicated to ridding China of sparrows that ate grain, as well as rats, flies and mosquitoes.
Party activists sent to villages to encourage peasants to chase sparrows, making a noise by banging drums/pots and pans to scare them from landing. If the sparrows could not find anywhere to rest, they would die of exhaustion.
57
What were the consequences?
Crops lay rotting in the fields as peasants wasted their time.
Worse still, the ‘sparrowcide’ reduced the number of birds who normally ate caterpillars - increased caterpillar population ate the crops, devouring the harvest.
The focus on increased fertilisation of soil also led to the destruction of thousands of the peasants’ homes - ploughed into the ground because animal dung was thought to be useful. Commune was to provide homes for these people but thousands had to seek shelter wherever it was available.
58
Why was productivity so low in the Communes?
Peasants were not rewarded with work points since the state was essentially providing for everybody’s needs. But unless villagers were inspired by the ideology, this reduced motivation to work. However these people were compelled to work hard by team leaders, who competed to out-produce neighbouring communes.
59
Why were targets and quotas increased by the Party?
Fearful they would be dismissed, the cadres refused to report this failure, instead claiming that they had exceeded their production quotas - overjoyed by the apparent success, the Party responded by increasing their already ambitious quotas even more.
60
In what way were the communes a success?
Major turning point in the transformation of China into a truly communist society. Ideologically they were a success - also ended private production and would revise loving held, deeply engrained social attitudes on gender roles and parents.
61
What was inflation by 1951 and how did the CCP achieve this?
By 1951 inflation had been cut to a manageable 15% (public spending cuts, increased taxation and replacement of the Chinese dollar with the Yuan)
62
Why did the Chinese follow the Soviet system?
Mao made it clear in 1949 that he would ‘lean to one side’.
Despite its problems, the Soviet system helped defeat Nazi Germany - so was regarded as the best (albeit only) option for China to copy.
Decision also practical - trade embargo imposed by Western powers (Korean War) - USSR China’s only ally.
63
What were the terms of the 1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty?
1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty sent over 11,000 advisory civilian technicians to provide specialist expertise of industry, governmental organisation and higher education - expertise came at the cost of high salaries and housing.
Also a Russian loan (not gift) of $300 million to be paid back with interest, in exchange China handed over a large part of their bullion stocks.
28,000 Chinese delegates also visited Moscow to be trained in propaganda techniques and aspects of governmental organisation.
The construction of 156 industrial enterprises including 24 electric power stations and 63 machinery plants. Some plants were constructed in the Soviet Union and shipped to China.
64
How was the influence of the Soviet Union shown in China?
Influence of Soviet Union - traditional Chinese buildings being cleared for new Soviet ‘brutalist’ blocks. Russian was also the only foreign language taught in School. TASS (official Soviet news agency) became the main source Chinese newspapers gathered information - ‘The Soviet Union’s today is our tomorrow’ - slogan in cities.
65
What were the targets of the plan and what did the Party declare in 1953?
Overall aim to make PRC as self-sufficient in food and manufactured goods as possible - to protect China from the capitalist world. In 1953, the Party declared ‘Industrialisation has been the goal sought by the Chinese people during the last one hundred years.’
66
According to the CCP, industrial output in 1949 was just ________% of its pre-WW2 peak.
10-20%
67
What percentage of investment would heavy industry receive?
90%
68
How did the government raise funds from the people?
Government hoped people would be more willing to invest in patriotic saving schemes - encouraged by fewer consumer goods - would allow government to direct funds into industrial development.
69
Apart from food requisitioning and patriotic saving schemes how else would the Plan be financed?
Higher levels of taxation in cities and Soviet loans.
70
(Successes)
What was the annual average growth rate under the plan?
16%
71
(Successes)
How much did industrial output grow annually and what was its target?
Industrial output grew 15.5% annually - target only 14.7%.
72
(Successes)
By how much did railway freight volume increase by and why was this significant?
Railway freight volume more than doubled - raw materials, equipment and machinery transporter more quickly and efficiently - PLA could also be moved around quickly to control any opposition,
73
(Successes)
Heavy industrial output nearly ________ and industrial working class grew from __ to ___ million
Tripled
6 to 10 million
74
(Successes)
How did the standard of living increase for workers?
Greater job security and better wages. Many workers escaped poverty of previous peasant life.
75
(Successes)
What did greater urbanisation allow the CCP?
Standard of Living of industrial workers improved - greater job security and better wages. Many workers escaped poverty of previous peasant life.
With greater urbanisation, the CCP was able to heighten its influence over the population - housing, healthcare, education and even entertainment could be provided by the state and Danweis controlled workers’ access to welfare support and provided permits for marriage and travel. Increased standard of living came at expense of freedom.
76
(Successes)
What was coal production in 1952 and what did this reach by 1957?
1952 - 68.5 million tons
1957 - 130 million tons
77
(Successes)
What was steel production in 1952 and what did this reach by 1957?
1952 - 1.35 million tons
1957 - 5.35 million tons
78
(Successes)
What was insecticide production in 1952 and what did this reach by 1957?
1952 - 600 tons
1957 - 61,000 tons
79
(Failures)
What was agricultural output during the Plan and why did this hinder the Plan?
Agricultural output at 2% annually - sharp decline from 14% annually (1950-52) - increase in industrial production depended on food supply - not enough.
80
(Failures)
What about Soviet loans hindered the Plan?
Plan was dependent on high-interest Soviet loans - in order to meet very demanding repayment schedules farmers were forced to sell their crops to the state at officially low prices - grain needed to feed industrial workers but peasants paid the price - barely surviving at a subsistence level.
81
(Failures)
Why were figures unlikely to be completely reliable?
Figures unlikely to be completely reliable - officials had interest to exaggerate production levels to please superiors - emphasis on reaching targets put emphasis on quantity over quality.
82
(Failures)
Was Chinese illiteracy an issue during the Plan?
Soviet guidance was invaluable but it exposed shortcomings in skill and literacy levels of Chinese workers that would only improve when the education system was updated - but by end of Plan only half of under 16s in full-time education and many peasants received a very basic education.
83
(Failures)
How did the ‘antis’ campaigns hinder the Plan?
‘Antis’ campaigns drove out expertise - standard of bureaucratic administration suffered as a result + lack of cooperation between industries - bottleneck in production.
84
(Failures)
Did the Plan lead to a greater standard of living for most people?
Although the government balanced the budget, there was little investment in improving the healthcare or education system - standard of living, especially in rural China, was still very low. Still huge shortage of trained doctors, particularly in rural areas.
85
When, where and why was ‘the Great Leap’ launched?
The Second Five Year Plan formed part of the Great Leap Forward while it was announced at the Eighth CCP Congress in May 1958. Mao called this ‘the Great Leap’ because he was impatient at the relatively slow pace of economic growth. He now wanted China to become a modern industrial power very quickly.
86
Why did Mao move economic planning from the state to the Party in February 1958?
In February 1958, economic planning moved from the state to the Party - so did not involve planners. Mao was also dismissive of what he called a ‘slave mentality’ towards experts. He would rely on mass mobilisation, that willpower would be enough to transform China’s economy.
87
Did Mao really direct the Plan?
Organisational details often left to the initiative of local cadres and direction from above came in the form of slogans, urging greater efforts and threats.
88
Mao told the Party they had to start a technological revolution to overtake Britain in _________ years.
Fifteen
89
How much had industrial production rose during the First Five-Year Plan and how did this influence the Great Leap Forward?
Mao was optimistic, whilst agriculture had faltered, industrial production rose 18.3% during the First Five-Year Plan - convinced him very quick and large improvements in agricultural production could be made.
90
Why did Mao launch the Great Leap Forward (Politically)?
Politically, Mao was optimistic about Communist technology appearing to be better than the West - Sputnik made it look as if the space race had been won. Moscow, 1957 - Mao - ‘The East wind is prevailing over the West wind.’
91
Why did Mao launch the Great Leap Forward (Ideologically)?
Ideologically - Mao believed people’s willpower would be enough to overcome all technological obstacles - decentralisation would allow for this to happen.
92
What encouraged Mao to accelerate the demands of industry?
Prospect of the new People’s Communes rapidly increasing agricultural production.
93
What did conservatives in the government, like Zhou Enlai and Chen Yu instead advocate?
They advocated rewarding higher producers with material incentives, while radicals called for the requisitioning of food. Mao initially considered requisitioning too risky since 70% of the Party came from a peasant background. Yet there were not enough consumer goods available for the cautious approach.
94
(How the Plan worked)
Why did Mao decentralise the Plan?
Idea was to give more freedom to local Party cadres to harness the energies of the masses.
Mao had been convinced that if state bureaucrats continued to control planning it would hold back the pace of the revolution.
For China to advance the cadres would need to unleash the potential of millions of peasants and workers.
95
(How the Plan worked)
What would be the chief method for industry to ‘leap forward’?
The production of as much steel as possible, wherever possible.
96
In the Autumn of 1957, what target of steel did Mao announce for the next four years?
Quadrupled to 20 million.
97
What encouraged Mao to go ahead with the backyard furnaces?
Encouraged with the apparent success of the water conservancy campaign of the last winter where 100 million were involved in digging reservoirs with minimal equipment. Mao thought steel production could take place in a similar way.
98
What was every family urged to do?
Every family was urged to construct their own backyard steel furnace and melt down metal objects to produce ‘steel’.
99
How great of an extent did this campaign occur to?
National movement began immediately - to such an extent that the night sky was turned red by the fires of so many kilns, and by day the smoke blocked the sun.
100
In September 1958, what percentage of China’s steel came from local furnaces, and what did this reach by October 1958?
September 1958 - 14%
October 1958 - 49%
101
At its peak, what percentage of the population had abandoned their normal activities in order to take part?
25%
102
Until when did it become apparent that the steel was not of useable quality?
Spring 1959.
103
Why did peasants not stop?
In fear of losing face peasants continued to melt down their pots and other household objects into worthless ‘steel’, which was taken away by the authorities and buried out of sight.
104
In what ways was it economically damaging?
Economically damaging - less food production, woodland destroyed for fuel - faster soil erosion and worse flooding - need for water conservancy schemes.
105
When were all privately-owned businesses nationalised?
1956
106
What was the “iron rice bowl”?
Workers had job security and wages (so-called ‘iron rice bowl’) as well as certain medical and educational benefits but the system as a whole was inefficient - no incentives to work harder, like in the Communes.
107
What was the Three Gate Gorge Dam?
The Three Gate Gorge Dam, designed to control the flow of the Yellow River was perhaps the most ambitious. But within a year it was being rebuilt. By 1961, twice as much mud was being deposited downstream, and foreign visitors were banned from visiting the dam.
108
How did the disruption to existing drainage patterns affect the land?
In many areas the disruption to existing drainage patterns caused by new irrigation systems led to an increase in salinisation (excessive buildup of salt in soil - reduces fertility), which reduced the productivity of the land.
109
What were the successes of the Second Five-Year Plan?
Massive irrigation terracing helped make agricultural land more fertile, while construction projects changed the face of Chinese cities. Tiananmen Square remodelled into a modern urban space.
Ideologically, the Plan was a success.
110
(Failures)
How did Mao’s targets cause it fail?
Targets were simply absurd. Mao aimed to create an atmosphere of competition and government officials knew that the best way to advance their careers was to impress Mao - did this by telling him that his economic policies would bring about unheard-of economic improvements. January 1958, the Ministry of Metallurgy declared steel production would reach 20 million tons by 1962 and 100 million by 1977. The Chemicals minister then also claimed it could construct thousands of chemical fertiliser factories.
111
(Failures)
How did mass mobilisation fail the Plan?
Mao lost sense of reality - convinced mass mobilisation would overcome all practical obstacles. Mao raised steel production targets because of his overconfidence.
112
(Failures)
How did the state of terror and the Anti-Rightist campaign affect the Plan?
After the purges of his enemies (1950s), no one would dare to challenge him or tell him the truth.
The Anti-Rightist Campaign meant that there were no intellectuals or experts left to offer advice or planning.
113
(Failures)
By 1962, China was only producing __________ the amount of heavy industrial goods and __________ of the light industrial goods that were being made in 1958.
Half
Three-quarters
114
(Failures)
How did the Sino-Soviet split affect the Plan?
Soviet experts which provided much-needed guidance during the First Five-Year Plan were all withdrawn by Khrushchev in 1960 as the Sino-Soviet split worsened. Lack of central planning at heart of plan’s failure.
115
(Failures)
How did the poor quality of goods affect trade?
Quality particularly inadequate - caused major problems with export orders, which had to be frequently replaced as complaints threatened to ruin China’s reputation as a trading partner.
116
What was coal production in 1958? In 1960? In 1961?
1958 - 230 million tons
1960 - 270 million tons
1961 - 180 million tons
117
What was steel production in 1958? In 1960? In 1961?
1958 - 8 million tons
1960 - 13 million tons
1962 - 8 million tons
118
What was chemical fertilisers production in 1958? In 1960? In 1961?
1958 - 1.4 million tons
1960 - 2.5 million tons
1961 - 1.4 million tons
119
What was grain production in 1958? In 1960? In 1961?
1958 - 200 million tons
1960 - 143.4 million tons
1961 - 147.5 million tons
120
What was meat production in 1958? In 1960? In 1961?
1958 - 4.3 million tons
1960 - 1.3 million tons
1961 - 1.3 million tons
121
What was industrial output at in 1958? In 1960? In 1961? In 1962?
1958 - 121 billion yuan
1960 - 183 billion yuan
1961 - 113 billion yuan
1962 - 94 billion yuan
122
Why did Mao call the Lushan Conference and when was it? Why did he bring his wife?
Officially called by Mao to assess the progress of the Great Leap Forward. He was clearly expecting trouble and so brought his wife, Jiang Qing, whose influence over the Shanghai wing of the Party might prove useful.
July 1959
123
Who was the only one who challenged him and what did he accuse the Party of?
Her support was not needed as only Peng Dehuai (one of Mao’s closest colleagues - fought in Civil War and hero of the Korean War) stood up (troubled by adverse effect of the GLF on the modernisation of the army and accused the Party of trying to ‘jump into communism in one step’) and he became isolated as a troublemaker when other leaders failed to endorse his revelations of the famine.
124
Why did Mao take this seriously?
Knowing Peng had recently visited the Soviet Union, Mao accused of passing negative reports about the communes to the Soviets that had led Khrushchev to publicly ridicule anyone who advocated for communes.
125
What were the important political and economic consequences of the Lushan Conference?
Important political and economic consequences - economically - before Lushan there had been signs that Mao was considering moderating aspects of the Second Five-Year Plan, e.g. the development of the backyard furnaces, but after Lushan China embarked on a so-called ‘second leap’ and the agricultural policies, in particular, pushed on at full speed. Politically - before it was assumed any leading Party comrade could express their views freely at a Conference, it had now become clear the only person that could criticise Mao was Mao himself.
126
At the Central Committee meeting in December 1958 what did Mao announce the harvest figure to be and then what did he revise it down to and what was it actually?
430 million tons
375 million tons
200 million tons
127
Why was a special Politburo meeting called after the Lushan Conference?
A special Politburo meeting sacked Peng, replaced by Lin Biao. The failure to support Peng resulted in a ‘second leap’.
128
What was the overall rural death rate before the famine and by 1960? What was it in Anhui?
Before the famine the rural death rate was 11.07 per 1000 people. By 1960 it was 26.8 In Anhui it reached 68.6.
129
How much of the food did state procurement take in 1958 compared to 1960?
1958 - 17%
1960 - 28%
130
How many died in Henan? In Sichuan? In Tibet? What proportion of people in Tibet was this?
In Henan 7.8 million people died and in Sichuan 9 million. In Tibet 1 million people died, this was 25% of the population.
131
Why was the situation worse in Tibet and how did Tibet respond?
The government deliberately made the situation worse forcing Tibetans to grow crops not suited to local conditions (like rice and wheat instead of barley). These measures made no economic sense and were designed to destroy Tibetan’s cultural identity. After touring Tibet in 1962, the Panchen Lama sent Zhou Enlai a long report (70,000 character petition) accusing him of attempted genocide, he was then imprisoned. Mao - “a poisoned arrow shot at the Party by reactionary feudal overlords (Panchen Lama) ." According to Isabel Hilton, it remains the "most detailed and informed attack on China's policies in Tibet that would ever be written.”
132
What did peasants resort to?
Peasants resorted to scavenging for tree bark and leaves. They scoured the communes for rats, but were often too exhausted to catch them. They ate toads, frogs and worms instead.
133
How did the famine affect women, children and the elderly?
Birth rates dropped as women could no longer procreate. Malnourished and physically exhausted from working their backyard furnaces, many succumbed to disease. Children and the elderly were particularly vulnerable and died from malnutrition in vast numbers.
Cases of cannibalism reported: children were abducted, killed and boiled for food. Some parents ate their own family members, especially their daughters. Some men sold their wives into prostitution and often women wanted to be sold - higher chance for survival. Other women resorted to prostitution.
134
When did the government officially admit the famine and what was the estimated death rate?
Accurate figures are difficult - the government only officially admitted the famine had happened in 1980 - estimated 30-50 million deaths.
135
How did the Lushan Conference worsen the Famine?
Unprecedented in its severity - attributed to several main causes, which were then worsened by the leadership’s refusal to face reality at the Lushan conference.
136
How did Mao’s ambition cause the famine?
By developing the commune system at the same time of launching the Second Five Year Plan and mobilising the masses to work on engineering projects, Mao was just too ambitious. Peasants could not be producing food, supervising backyard furnaces and working on water conservancy projects all at the same time. China’s main asset may have been its population but it was not possible to allocate manpower efficiently enough to increase food production. Some Communes did produce a surplus but transportation and communication was not developed enough to move food where it was needed.
137
What did Mao tell his physician, Doctor Li?
Mao seems to have had a blind faith that communes would work simply because private ownership was over. He told his physician, Doctor Li, that he had no idea how the Communes were supposed to work in practice.
138
How did Lysenkoism cause the famine?
Mao eagerly accepted Lysenko’s claims that ‘super crops’ could produce yields 16 times greater than those produced by conventional methods. Lysenko said ‘In company, grain grows faster, seeds are happiest when growing together.’
139
How did weather cause the famine?
Typhoons caused flooding in South China - reduced flow of the Yellow River by two-thirds. More than 60% of cultivated land was affected by either flood or drought. 2 million died through drowning or from starvation when their crops were destroyed.
140
How did the Anti-Rightist Campaign and the State of Terror cause the famine?
The Anti-Rightists campaign also created a climate of fear which led cadres not to speak out when things went wrong, and passed onto their superiors excessively optimistic reports of how much communes were producing. These reports encouraged the planners to set ever higher targets and requisition more food at even lower prices. When Mao went on a provincial tour of inspection, local officials were known to transplant whole fields of seedlings to line his route to convey the impression of plenty.
141
By what percentage did the amount of land in use for crop production fall between 1958 and 1961?
9%
142
How was grain used as an export?
Grain exports to pay for more heavy industry from the Soviet Union continued to rise and grain was given to fellow communist countries (North Korea and Vietnam) as a free gift.
143
Why did farmers have such low productivity?
No incentive for farmers (no property and minimal reward) - negative effect on productivity and no matter how hard you worked would have no effect on how much food you received.
144
What was the underpinning reason for the famine?
Mao’s own perspective of China’s priorities and his belief that the end justifies the means. To him, the prospect of industrialising China to show Chinese Communism as a success was more important than the lives of millions of ‘expendable’ peasants.
145
In 1957 how did Mao shock his Russian hosts in Moscow?
In 1957 he shocked his Russian hosts in Moscow when he said that the death of half of the Chinese population in a nuclear war would be a sacrifice worth paying for victory. The shortfall of the population would soon be made up.
146
How and why did the CCP maintain exports during the Great Leap Forward?
This also explains why China continued to export food during the famine. East Germany’s margarine industry came to depend on imported edible oils from China. Zhou Enlai even urged people in China to consume less, so they could maintain exports and therefore show the success of the Great Leap Forward.
147
How did Mao withdraw from politics?
Mao did take some responsibility for some of the failings of the communes - ‘The chaos caused was on a grand scale and I take responsibility.’ He admitted backyard furnaces had been a ‘great catastrophe’.
He used language arguably in order to emphasise his simple peasant background in comparison to other leaders.
148
Why was a campaign launched to overthrow the management and corruption of communes?
In order to shift blame of high death tolls onto subversive local officials (accused of being counter-revolutionaries), rather than admitting any responsibility.
149
What followed this in November 1960?
An Emergency Directive
150
What did the emergency directive allow for?
It allowed villagers to keep their private plots of land and to engage in side occupations as well as farming, and restored local markets - showed the commune system could be dismantled.
151
Who was the initial architect of this ‘strategic retreat’?
Li Fuchan
152
What could peasants do from 1960?
Could trade on the free market and claim any unused land and cultivate it.
153
By the mid-1960s, private production accounted for approximately what proportion of peasants’ income?
By the mid-1960s, private production accounted for approximately one-third of peasants’ income.
154
How did the CCP try to reduce pressure on urban food supplies?
25 million city-dwellers were forced to move to the countryside.
155
In 1961 how did the CCP increase the food supply?
In 1961, massive grain imports were arranged from Canada, Australia and even the USA.
156
When did the yield of Chinese grain harvest reach back to its 1957 level?
1965
157
What was still a failure of this?
Imports remained high until the 1970s.
158
Why was Mao unhappy?
Mao was unhappy that people had rejected the communes, and uneasy that the reversion to capitalism was undermining the values on which his reputation was based. He also suspected that Liu and Deng were using their new-found popularity to plot against him within the Party - paid for during the Cultural Revolution.
159
How did Liu and Deng restore industrial production?
They closed down thousands of inefficient projects and announced more realistic coal and steel targets. To help this - relaxation of the persecution of scientists and intellectuals. Managers were given more control over state-owned enterprises and urban Party cadres were sent to the countryside to replace the Maoist local cadres.
160
How were labour camp prisoners used?
Labour camp prisoners were put to work making cooking utensils to replace ones melted in the backyard furnaces.
161
How was industrial production changed?
Industrial production was changed to support agriculture - hand tools, carts and boats produced.
162
By when had the availability of tools, boats and carts been restored to the level that they had been before the communes?
By the end of 1962.
163
Where did this pragmatic economic planning come from?
Chen Yun.
164
What did China succeed with in 1964?
1964 - Chinese scientists succeeded in exploding China’s own atom bomb - pieced together the documents that Soviet advisors had hurriedly shredded when they were withdrawn in 1959. Mao was jubilant and even ‘thanked Khrushchev’.
165
At what rate did light industry grow annually?
27%
166
At what rate did heavy industry grow?
17%
167
Production of consumer goods was ________ the 1957 level.
Double.
168
Why did Mao summon the conference of 7,000 cadres in January 1962?
In an attempt to prevent any further drift away from strict communist principles.
169
What happened at the conference?
Not the result he hoped for - Liu Shaoqi, while praising Mao for his correct leadership, he dismissed Mao’s claims that successes outweighed failures by a ratio of 9:1 and rejected his argument that weather conditions had caused the Great Leap Forward to fail. He announced that the problems were due 30% to natural disasters and 70% to man-made disasters.
170
What did Doctor Li say about the Conference?
Mao was never personally criticised but Doctor Li said ‘everyone knew the policies were Mao’s’ and so ‘to criticise the policies was to criticise Mao’.
171
What did the Conference of 7000 demonstrate?
Clear difference of views. On the right of the Party were Liu, Deng and Chen Yun (pragmatic view that ideological concessions were necessary - incentives necessary and mass mobilisation not suitable for expertise). Mao was arguing that continuing the revolution should be the key: without mass mobilisation, there would always be the danger of a new ‘bourgeois’ class emerging inside the Party.
172
What did Mao do at the annual Party Conference of 1962?
Mao at the annual Party conference in 1962 demanded to know whether China would take ‘the socialist road or the capitalist road’, and condemned the revisionism of Liu and Deng. The result was an uneasy compromise - Liu and Deng outwardly agreed to Mao’s analysis but continued to do things their own way.
