China 2.2 Flashcards
What was the economy like in 1949?
Chinese economy was largely dependent on agriculture - backward and inefficient. Not yet industrialised.
Were Mao’s reforms purely economic or ideological?
Mao believed that modern industry was needed to create a truly socialist nation - food supplies had to be increased, not to improve the lives of the peasantry, but the growing urban workers.
Similarly, collectivisation was not only motivated by the economic benefits of large-scale production, but also by the belief that people living together and sharing everything would bring true communism closer to reality.
Mao often dismissed the advice of experts and preferred to put blind faith in mass mobilisation.
How did Mao adapt Marxism?
Mao argued that peasants would be the ‘vanguards of the revolution’ despite Marx arguing they were too traditional and conservative to demand revolution.
What did Mao say about peasants?
Mao noted they were ‘the most responsive to Communist Party leadership’.
What was the Agrarian Reform Law and when was it established?
The law laid down the legal framework under which land reform took place, it claimed it would eradicate exploitation of peasants by the ‘gentry-landlord’ class as a first step towards industrialisation.
Landlords would have their property seized and redistributed ‘to the tiller’ (peasants who worked the land).
What percentage of farmers rented their land in 1949? What did this say about exploitation?
Only 10-15% of farmers rented their land so exploitation was not really a problem.
Why did land reform risk losing peasant support?
In some areas already owned by the Communists, many peasants already owned the land and they hoped the new regime would be able to provide stability and peace. These peasants, who often had influence over poorer peasants, were useful supporters for the Party and the regime did not want to alienate them.
Did landlords dominate society to the extent of being a ‘ruling class’ and were they universally hated?
Not really. Mao needed to create the impression that such a ruling class did exist and deserved to be hated in order to rally the peasants and justify his claim to have successfully adapted Marxism to fit Chinese society.
Interpretations differ due to lack of detailed evidence - only systematic and detailed survey of farmers from 1929-33 by Nanking University of 16,000 across 22 provinces - only 6% were tenants and generally not poorer than those who owned the land they farmed.
What were Poor Peasant Associations and who organised them?
Poor Peasant Organisations determined the class of a peasants. They were organised by work teams. Work teams were often made up of young people from newly liberated cities, hastily trained and sent out with no experience of rural life or understanding of their conditions.
How was anti-landlord paranoia created in villages?
Peasants were encouraged to round up their landlords, who were then subjected to struggle meetings in front of the whole village where they would be forced to admit their crimes as ‘class enemies’. Often sentenced to death.
Work teams put considerable time and effort into whipping up anti-landlord paranoia in villages.
Why did Mao specifically attack landlords if they weren’t a ‘ruling class’?
Landlords were an easy target which Communists could generate a sense of class-consciousness - vital for sustaining the revolution - unlike businessmen their assets (lands) could not be transferred so could not flee to Taiwan.
By the summer of 1952, what was the impact of land reform?
Estimated 88% of households had taken part with 43% of the land redistributed to 60% of the population.
What was the agricultural production rate between 1950 and 1952?
15% per annum
By the end of 1951, how many landlords had lost their land, what were the official death figures and what was the estimated number?
By the end of 1951, 10 million landlords had lost their land. Official figures - 700,000 deaths, 3 million estimated.
Why did the CCP move to collectivistaion?
The Party never intended the peasantry to become established as a new class of landowners, therefore began the move to collectivisation rapidly.
What were Mutual Aid Teams and when were they first introduced?
December 1951. They would pool labour, animals and equipment, while retaining their rights of private ownership.
Why were MATs rational and popular?
This was rational: households with more land than they could farm efficiently could combine those with more labour than they needed, and both benefit. This happened anyways at busy times of the year, but it was now formalised as a permanent arrangement and managed by the peasant associations.
Richer peasants were excluded and MATs were enthusiastically accepted because they mirrored the already common practice. They were particularly beneficial to the poorer peasants.
By 1952, what percentage of all peasants’ households belonged to a MAT?
40%
What were Agricultural Producers Cooperatives (APCs) and why were they introduced?
MATs were pragmatic and popular but Communist leaders were worried they still allowed the continued existence of capitalist ideas (buying and selling land, and hiring of labourers).
In 1953, the second stage towards collectivisation began. Successful MATs were encouraged to combine and form APCs of 40-50 households, where land could also be pooled and could therefore be consolidated into larger units and cultivated more efficiently than in traditional strips.
How were profits shared out?
Profits were shared out at the end of the year, using a points system according to the value of the land, labour and tools they had contributed. The peasants received payment in grain or money.
Why were APCs less popular than MATs?
The peasants did not want to share their newly acquired land.
By June 1955 what percentage of households had joined APCs?
14%
Why did Mao call for a slowdown in Spring 1953?
In desire to respond to Mao’s wishes for faster change to collectivisation, many local officials rushed into unplanned (not organised into MATs first) APCs - went into debt as they had to borrow money to buy equipment.
Why did Mao renew pressure to join APCs in 1954?
Peasants started buying and selling land and food (capitalist) - Mao condemned this rejection of revolutionary values and the slowdown as ‘rash retreat’.
What was the increase in production in 1953 and 1954 and what were the consequences?
Less than 2%.
The 1954 poor harvest prompted the government to requisition grain to feed the cities.
What were the effects of grain requisitioning?
Rural protest
What was Mao’s response?
Mao announced the policy of ‘Stop, Contract and Develop’ (another U-turn) - halt of APCs for 18 months.
What did Gradualists like Liu Shaoqi and Zhou Enlai say about China’s agricultural policy in regards to collectivisation?
Gradualists like Liu Shaqoi and Premier Zhou Enlai claimed that China was not yet ready for large-scale farming as it lacked machinery and fertilisers. They denounced the ‘premature’ establishment of APCs. Mid-1955, Vice Premier Li Fuchun told the National People’s Congress that only ‘with modern techniques, can the productive forces of agriculture be greatly developed.…..To meet the demands of the nation’s industrialisation.’
How did Mao respond?
Mao disagreed and in July 1955 reversed his policy of ‘Stop, Contract and Develop’, demanding an increase in the pace of reform towards full collectivisation, and an end to all private property.
He argued that collectivisation was necessary to create a socialist society and mass mobilisation could make up for any shortfall in mechanical equipment.
He also believed that slow agricultural growth would jeopardise industrialisation because exporting food was the only way China could pay for imports of advanced technology from the Soviet Union.
What did Chen Boda have to say about victims of the famine?
‘An unavoidable phenomenon of our onward march’.
By 1956 how many households were in APC and how many were farming privately?
75 million households were in APCS
3% were farming privately.
What did Mao publish to foster the illusion that the peasantry wanted collectivisation?
‘Socialist Upsurge in the Countryside’ - series of selectively edited compilation of favourable reports on collectives by local activists.
What was the likely reason for Mao’s drive for collectivisation?
Mao’s fear of unreliable food supply to cities if peasants owned the land.
What did Mao say about freedom and socialism in regards to peasants?
Mao said ‘the peasants want freedom, but we want socialism’ - feared if given freedom, peasants would return to capitalism.
What were HPCs and by January of 1956 how many APCs were HPCs?
APCs became higher (HPCs) consisting of 200-300 households where peasant families no longer owned the land or equipment, and the profits were shared according to work points earned by labour contributed, not land or equipment provided. By January 1956, 30.7% of APCs were HPCs.
(Consequence)
Was collectivisation an ideological success?
Yes. The state now owned means of production of food - the land, as membership was compulsory (except for a few private plots). It was Chinese Marxism in action.
(Consequences)
Was collectivisation a political success for Mao?
Unexpected pace tribute to Mao’s authority within the Party and outmanoeuvring of gradualists + actual process greatly increased control the Party exerted over local people.
‘New Mao’ emerged - by mid 1950s such was Mao’s personal prestige and authority he was able to override the Gradualists - feared being denounced as Rightists they had no choice but to follow Mao’s lead.
However collectivisation marked a distinct change with the CCP - peasantry relationship - peasants now servants of the Party instead of loyal allies + speed made Mao overconfident.
(Consequences)
Was collectivisation an economic success?
Economically - First Five-Year Plan - 3.8% growth - insufficient for faster-growing industrial workforce. But cultivated land per head and labour productivity was low - would have been hard for peasants to produce a surplus - worsened by lack of incentives.
Why did Mao want communes? - Quote?
Mao first built communism in the countryside first (communes) to fit Marxist theory in China. Mao - ‘Without socialisation of agriculture, there can be no complete, consolidate socialism,’
How much did grain production rise in 1957?
1%
Why was forced requisitioning risky in China?
Almost 70% of the CCP were from rural backgrounds - taking too much grain risked alienating their support.
When was Mao’s fact-finding mission and what conclusion did he come to?
Mao embarked on a fact-finding mission in Spring 1958. Mao returned to Beijing convinced he had backing of peasantry and local Party activists for a more collective ambition scheme. First-hand evidence convinced Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping.
What was Mao’s commune policy summed up into one quote?
‘Walking on two legs’.
What would peasants be mobilised on within the Communes?
Industry, agriculture and water conservancy and other civil engineering schemes.
In how long did Mao say that China would overtake Britain?
7.5 years
How did Mao hope to achieve this policy?
Mao did not personally direct commune policy, but his public endorsement was enough to quicken the pace. He hoped to achieve his policy through decentralising economic planning - avoiding government technical experts.
How many households would be in the average commune?
5500 households
What did Mao believe would allow for industry and agriculture to be developed at the same time and why?
Mao believed mass mobilisation would allow industry and agriculture to be developed simultaneously within the communes - peasants no longer dependent on urban industry.
Mao believed the masses could become both ‘Red and Expert’, ideologically committed but also technically knowledgeable and that human will, far more than technology, will overcome anything.
The first commune
Where?
What?
When?
First commune established in Henan province in July 1958 - ‘Sputnik Commune’ - in honour of the Soviet satellite - first ever - represented the strength of the Communist world. Merged 27 collectives (9000 households)
In August 1958, what happened that accelerated the transformation of co-operatives into communes?
In August 1958, Mao declared ‘The people’s commune is great.’ - next day headline in newspapers, accelerating the transformation of co-operatives into communes.
By the end of 1958, _________ co-operatives had been reorganised into _________ communes. The Party claimed that ___% of the peasant population lived in communes - almost half a billion.
740,000
26,000
99%
What was the vision behind communes?
Closer to the vision of a perfect communist society. Mess halls enabled communal eating and boarding schools would be provided.
Mao believed that with women no longer forced to do housework they could join the men in the fields and factories. Propaganda celebrated these ‘iron women’ for taking their full and equal role in economic production.
Grandparents no longer forced to help care for grandchildren - free to spend time with other elderly people in ‘happiness homes.’
What percentage of women laboured in agriculture between 1958 and 1959?
90%
What was the reality of Communal living?
Forced into one location - bombarded with propaganda.
All able-bodied citizens between 15 and 50 belonged to the commune militia.
Poor quality food caused diets to worsen.
What was the effect of comunes on family life and women?
Devastating results for family life. Traditional family meal replaced by mess halls, surrounded by strangers. Parents lost influence over raising of their children and grandparents became isolated from their relatives. Parents were encouraged to abandon ‘bourgeois emotional attachments,’ in favour of a regimented lifestyle where they worked for communal good. If sleeping in communal dormitories, couples could only sleep together on arranged conjugal visits. Life in the communes was harder. Women were forced to carry out harsh physical labour that had previously been the role of men.
What was the four pests campaign?
Launched in 1958, dedicated to ridding China of sparrows that ate grain, as well as rats, flies and mosquitoes.
Party activists sent to villages to encourage peasants to chase sparrows, making a noise by banging drums/pots and pans to scare them from landing. If the sparrows could not find anywhere to rest, they would die of exhaustion.
What were the consequences?
Crops lay rotting in the fields as peasants wasted their time.
Worse still, the ‘sparrowcide’ reduced the number of birds who normally ate caterpillars - increased caterpillar population ate the crops, devouring the harvest.
The focus on increased fertilisation of soil also led to the destruction of thousands of the peasants’ homes - ploughed into the ground because animal dung was thought to be useful. Commune was to provide homes for these people but thousands had to seek shelter wherever it was available.
Why was productivity so low in the Communes?
Peasants were not rewarded with work points since the state was essentially providing for everybody’s needs. But unless villagers were inspired by the ideology, this reduced motivation to work. However these people were compelled to work hard by team leaders, who competed to out-produce neighbouring communes.
Why were targets and quotas increased by the Party?
Fearful they would be dismissed, the cadres refused to report this failure, instead claiming that they had exceeded their production quotas - overjoyed by the apparent success, the Party responded by increasing their already ambitious quotas even more.
In what way were the communes a success?
Major turning point in the transformation of China into a truly communist society. Ideologically they were a success - also ended private production and would revise loving held, deeply engrained social attitudes on gender roles and parents.
What was inflation by 1951 and how did the CCP achieve this?
By 1951 inflation had been cut to a manageable 15% (public spending cuts, increased taxation and replacement of the Chinese dollar with the Yuan)
Why did the Chinese follow the Soviet system?
Mao made it clear in 1949 that he would ‘lean to one side’.
Despite its problems, the Soviet system helped defeat Nazi Germany - so was regarded as the best (albeit only) option for China to copy.
Decision also practical - trade embargo imposed by Western powers (Korean War) - USSR China’s only ally.
What were the terms of the 1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty?
1950 Sino-Soviet Treaty sent over 11,000 advisory civilian technicians to provide specialist expertise of industry, governmental organisation and higher education - expertise came at the cost of high salaries and housing.
Also a Russian loan (not gift) of $300 million to be paid back with interest, in exchange China handed over a large part of their bullion stocks.
28,000 Chinese delegates also visited Moscow to be trained in propaganda techniques and aspects of governmental organisation.
The construction of 156 industrial enterprises including 24 electric power stations and 63 machinery plants. Some plants were constructed in the Soviet Union and shipped to China.
How was the influence of the Soviet Union shown in China?
Influence of Soviet Union - traditional Chinese buildings being cleared for new Soviet ‘brutalist’ blocks. Russian was also the only foreign language taught in School. TASS (official Soviet news agency) became the main source Chinese newspapers gathered information - ‘The Soviet Union’s today is our tomorrow’ - slogan in cities.
What were the targets of the plan and what did the Party declare in 1953?
Overall aim to make PRC as self-sufficient in food and manufactured goods as possible - to protect China from the capitalist world. In 1953, the Party declared ‘Industrialisation has been the goal sought by the Chinese people during the last one hundred years.’
According to the CCP, industrial output in 1949 was just ________% of its pre-WW2 peak.
10-20%
What percentage of investment would heavy industry receive?
90%
How did the government raise funds from the people?
Government hoped people would be more willing to invest in patriotic saving schemes - encouraged by fewer consumer goods - would allow government to direct funds into industrial development.
