Russia 1.5 Flashcards
(146 cards)
1
Q
What were growth rates by 1980?
A
0.6%
2
Q
In 1970, the richest 10% of Americans were __ wealthier than the bottom 10% compared to just __ in Russia. What did this mean for the USSR?
A
7x, 3x.
As a result, coupled with a shortage of several consumer goods and a large social benefit programme, there was less incentive for workers to improve on the social mobility ladder —> low productivity.
3
Q
By the early 1980s, how many tractors did Gosplan demand to be produced, and how many were not used?
In 1986, what percentage of machinery did Gosplan estimate was never used?
A
By the early 1980s Gosplan demanded the production of 400,000 tractors every year but at least 20% were never used due to the shortage of tractor drivers.
In 1986, Gosplan estimated that 12% of machinery was never used.
4
Q
What was military spending by 1985 in the USSR, compared to the USA?
A
17% by 1985.
Just 6% in the US.
5
Q
By the early 1980s, how many PCs did the USA have comapred to the USSR?
A
USA - 3 million
USSR - 50,000
6
Q
How much was given to Cuba and Vietnam in aid and oil subsidies between 1981 and 1985?
How much in oil subsidies did the Warsaw Pact receive annually?
A
$4 bn.
$6 bn.
$3 bn.
7
Q
Who wrote the Novosibirsk Report and what did it draw attention to?
A
Leading economic sociologist, Tatyana Zaslavskaya - drew attention to the growing crisis in agriculture caused by state inefficiency and inflexibility. Of the ageing Politburo members, Gorbachev was the only one not to ignore it.
8
Q
What were the three stages of Gorbachev’s economic reforms according to Richard Sakwa?
A
Rationalisation, 1985-86 - period of uskorenie (acceleration), initial economic reforms. Designed to stimulate higher growth rates and higher levels of production.
Reform, 1987 - Mar 1990 - Reforms to introduce market forces into the Soviet economy. Initiated political reforms at the same time in order to build support for greater economic change.
Transformation, Mar 1990 - Aug 1991 - Gorbachev began to abandon fundamental aspects of the system such as single-party rule and the command economy. The Party lost control of the process.
9
Q
By the mid 1980s, alcohol accounted for what percentage of all household spending?
A
15%
10
Q
What did Gorbachev say in April 1985 about alcohol.
A
‘We can’t build Communism on vodka’.
11
Q
How did Gorbachev try to reduce alcoholism in the USSR?
A
In May 1985 Gorbachev reduced alcohol production at state-run factories by 50% and assigned 55,000 Party members to a new task force to stop the illegal production of alcohol. The cost of vodka tripled in shops.
12
Q
Why did the policy fail?
A
Soviet citizens began drinking samogon, illegal moonshine liquor. The government made less tax revenue from vodka sales - dropped by 67 billion roubles (9% of GDP). Campaign was abandoned in 1988.
13
Q
What was the aim of uskorenie?
A
Uskorenie was designed to end economic stagnation through the traditional Soviet method of increasing investment with a focus in science and engineering. This approach was to be implemented in the Twelfth Five-Year Plan.
14
Q
How much of an increase in industrial production over the next 15 years did Gorbachev predict?
A
20%
15
Q
Why did Uskorenie and the Twelfth Five-Year Plan fail?
A
A major reason was the fall in oil price from $70 a barrel in 1981 to $20 a barrel in 1985. Soviet oil revenues fell by ⅔. In 1985, fuel accounted for 55% of exports.
Soviet industry became notorious for using equipment that was out of date and prone to breaking down.
Money was often needed to import food and the amount of money the government had fell significantly (Oil and Alcohol) and so the importing of new technology was slow and minimal.
Gorbachev’s failure to boost the economy worsened this and the War in Afghanistan and the USA’s SDI ensured that military spending remained high during this period.
Rather than leading to economic growth, acceleration created an economic crisis.
16
Q
How did Gorbachev finance uskorenie and why did this become an issue?
A
Gorbachev financed uskorenie from borrowing from Western countries. The deficit increased from 2.4% of GDP to 6.2% (1985-86).
17
Q
How did Gosplan fail uskorenie?
A
Part of the problem was the level of opposition to any real change and much of this came from the Gosplan. In June 1986, Gorbachev admitted, ‘Take Gosplan … What they want, they do.’
Changes to reductions in investment in military technology often led to resistance, the same occurred in Industry.
18
Q
Did productivity improve during the Twelfth Five-Year Plan?
A
No improvements in productivity. Reached a point where additional investment in agriculture had no effect.
Focus remained on quantity rather than quality.
19
Q
In 1987 what did Gorbachev admit?
A
He admitted that the first two years had been wasted.
20
Q
When was the encouragement of joint ventures and what did it do?
A
Jan 1987 - the government allowed foreign firms to establish businesses in the Soviet Union, usually in joint enterprises with the state. Moscow got its first McDonald’s in 1990. Hoped this would increase access to foreign technology.
21
Q
When was The Law on State Enterprises and what did it do?
A
June 1987 - allowed a loosening of state controls over wages and prices - weakened the authority of Gosplan. Also allowed an element of election in the choice of managers. Factories could produce what they liked once targets had been met. This instead meant that the government had to pay higher prices for goods, further increasing their debt.
22
Q
When was the Law on Co-operatives and what did it do?
A
1988 - allowed small-scale private enterprises to be established.
23
Q
By 1990 how many co-operatives had been set up?
A
200,000
24
Q
In the first year alone, by how much did the turnover of the co-operatives increase to?
A
29.2 million roubles to 1.04 billion roubles.
25
How much more were the incomes of co-operative members when compared to people employed by state enterprises?
2 - 3 times higher
26
When was Gosplan abolished?
1990
27
By how much did food production growth rate rise between 1986 and 1987?
How much was imported?
1 - 2%
20% of foodstuffs were still imported
28
How did uncertainty over supplies create a food crisis?
Uncertainty over supplies encouraged a wave of hoarding by the population. Shops were quickly emptied and food rationing was introduced in some cities. In 1988, meat was rationed in 26 out of the 55 regions of Russia.
29
By how much did urban wages rise in 1989?
13%
30
By the end of 1990 how many foreign joint-ventures were there in the USSR, and why were they largely unsuccessful.
3000
Foreign companies were faced with endless bureaucracy that made progress slow.
Most were small-scale operations that had little impact on the economy.
31
How were reforms sabotaged?
Reforms were undermined by officials, or even ignored or sabotaged. In Leningrad the city administration withdrew all sausages from shops and buried them.
32
How many enterprises did strikes affect in 1990 and in 1991?
260 enterprises (1990) to 1755 enterprises (1991)
33
What was the budget deficit in 1988
10%
34
What was the change in the price in a kilo of beef between January 1990 and April 1990?
Beef (kilo) 2 roubles (Jan 1990) to 7 roubles (April 1990).
35
What was the change in Gorbachev's approval rating between December 1989 and November 1990?
Gorbachev’s approval rating dropped from 52% (Dec 1989) to 21% (Nov 1990).
36
Why and when did Gorbachev announce the '500 Day Programme' and what was it?
As a result of the chaos.
August 1990.
Gorbachev accepted the need to introduce a full market economy.
The '500 Day Programme' was a plan for the economic transition.Proposed widespread privatisation and complete marketisation in two years.
37
Why did Gorbachev stop supporting the proposal?
Gorbachev initially supported the proposals, but under pressure from hardline communists (Ryzhkov) he backed down.
38
Why did the government not adopt an overall plan in 1991?
Radical reform continued during 1991 but the government did not adopt an overall plan, largely because of Gorbachev’s refusal to act decisively.
39
What laws were passed in January 1991 and April 1991?
Jan 1991 - Supreme Soviet introduced private property. In April, a law was passed to allow citizens to trade stocks and shares
40
How much did oil production fall between 1990 and 1991?
9%
41
What did an official government report in 1991 say about the economy?
An official government report stated that the Soviet economy was moving beyond crisis to catastrophe.
42
By mid 1990 how many consumer goods were rarely on sale and how many man hours were put into queueing annually?
By mid 1990 over 1000 consumer goods were rarely on sale and rationing became widespread. Queueing became the national pastime - estimates put it at 30-40 billion man (or rather woman) hours a year.
43
By how much did social benefits rise in 1990?
Social benefits rose by 21% in 1990. The plan for 1990 was an increase in 10bn rubles, but it turned out to be 28 bn.
44
Between 1987 and 1989, how much did imports from the West rise and what effect did this have on the currency?
People protested and imports from the West rose by almost a half between 1987 and 1989. So by 1989 the USSR could not service its hard currency.
45
By how much did Soviet ouput decline between 1990 and 1991?
Soviet output declined by 20% between 1990 and 1991. Critics - perestroika had led to catastroika (economic collapse)
46
What did any political reform risk doing?
Any policy which weakened the authority of the Party risked weakening the Soviet Union, as the Communist Party held the Union together.
Khrushchev’s reforms had threatened Soviet control of Hungary
47
What led to the pressure for reform?
This tension between the reality of the Soviet government and Communist ideals created discussion and led to pressure for reform.
48
What led to the widespread cynicism of the Soviet people? Why did many tolerate it?
Over time, the difference between the official goals of the Party and living standards led to widespread cynicism - Soviet people became aware of corruption. Many still tolerated the government as the Party as living standards were improving. Idealists hoped that reform would finish the journey started by Lenin.
49
What were Gorbachev's objectives?
Key political aim to revitalise the Soviet Union. Wanted to end stagnation, corruption and the cynicism of the Soviet people.
50
Chernobyl Incident April 1986 - what happened and what did it show?
The Soviet government’s response to the Chernobyl nuclear accident in April 1986 convinced Gorbachev that glasnost was essential. No official announcement until the government was forced to after Scandinavian scientists picked up high readings of radioactivity. An evacuation of people was delayed, adding to the human cost as well as an increase in cases of leukaemia and birth deformations.
The affair reflected the weaknesses of the USSR (power plant was badly managed, used outdated equipment and had poor health and safety and its deficiencies were covered by secrecy). The affair did little to help Gorbachev’s international reputation.
51
When did Gorbachev first speak for the need for openness?
December 1974
52
What did Gorbachev do to criticise hardliners who opposed openness?
He invited intellectuals to criticise hardliners and support his reforms, and saw them as natural allies against hardliners.
53
Example of Gorbachev dealing with corruption and how did it affect the Party?
Attacks on corrupt Party officials were popular with the public but caused a lot of resentment within the Party. Brezhnev’s son-in-law, Churbanov, was sentenced to 12 years’ imprisonment. Also replacing Kunayev with Kolbin.
54
What did Gorbachev do to criticise hardliners who opposed openness?
He invited intellectuals to criticise hardliners and support his reforms, and saw them as natural allies against hardliners.
55
At the Twenty Seventh Party Congress, what did the new programme commit the Party to?
When was the last time before this since the Party had adopted a new set of priorites?
When was the Congress?
Did Gorbachev set out a detailed plan?
What was the signficance?
Feb + Mar 1986 - set out a new programme for the Communist Party. This was the first time the Party had adopted a new set of priorities since 1961.
New programme committed the Party to the ‘systematic and all round improvement of socialism’.
Including ‘genuine democracy’. Gorbachev linked democratisation to glasnost.
However, there were few signs of genuine openness at the Party Congress nor did Gorbachev set out detailed proposals for achieving this. Its adoption does show a symbol that Gorbachev wanted to break with the past.
56
Following the 1986 Congress, who did Gorbachev appoint to be responsible for the Soviet media and why did Gorbachev want to liberalise it?
Yakovlev.
Done in order to create an alliance between communists, reformers and Russian intellectuals - believed it would allow intellectuals to criticise the Party and develop new ideas.
57
How did Yakovlev promote Glasnost?
Yakovlev appointed new radical editors - newspapers began to publish accounts of the scale of Stalin’s atrocities + problems in the Soviet economy. Yakovlev permitted the publication of previously banned books, plays and films by anti-communist intellectuals. E.g. Repentance, 1984 (Film) which was highly critical of Stalin’s terror.
58
Who did Gorbachev begin to start releasing from prison?
Who did he invite back from exile in Gorky and when?
Gorbachev also authorised the release of dissidents from prison. Sakharov was invited to Moscow from exile in Gorky in Dec 1986 to support political reform.
59
When was Glasnost extended?
1987 and 1988
60
In 1988 who did Yakovlev support and what did this person do?
Why was this signifcant?
In 1988, Yakovlev supported Tsipko in publicly criticising Marx and Lenin (much further than Stalin) - attacked the foundations of Communism
61
From 1988 what were citizens permitted to do?
From 1988 citizens permitted to listen to foreign radio and read foreign newspapers.
62
At the Nineteenth Party Conference in June 1988 did senior party officials admit to?
The scale of the problems facing the Soviet Union, including in healthcare and education and the poverty of the rural population.
63
What were the consequences of Glasnost?
Glasnost allowed Gorbachev, radicals and intellectuals to criticise moderates in the Party and aspects of inefficiency in the government.
Revelations about Stalin’s terror and the scale of problems led some to question the foundations of the Soviet system.
Groups in republics began to demand not reform but independence.
Glasnost ultimately established partly rule as it permitted criticism of the Party that Gorabchev had not anticipated.
64
At the 1988 Party Conference what did Gorbachev set out his proposals for?
Socialist democracy.
65
What did Gorbachev introduce in 1988, and what would take place from 1989 onwards?
Gorbachev introduced multi-candidate elections to the Supreme Soviet. Soviet citizens had the right to vote in elections where there was a choice of Communist Party candidates from 1989 onwards. `
66
What did these multi-candidate elections mean for the Party?
Multi-party elections stripped the Communist Party of its power to appoint candidates. Shift of power from Party’s leadership to Soviet people.
Reforms did allow them to make a real choice between radicals, moderates and independents.
67
What was the consequence of the multi-candidate elections?
Reforms meant that, for the first time since 1921, the Supreme Soviet was (partly) independent of the Party’s leadership. Therefore the reforms significantly weakened the Party.
Several high-ranking communists were defeated, including 5 of the CC.
Radicals did well, Yeltsin won 89% of the votes in Moscow.
Nationalists used the election to campaign for independence, resulting in violence in Georgia.
Yeltsin emerged a popular figure and rival to Gorbachev.
Criticism against the Party: by 1989 there were over 60,000 informal groups organising demonstrations and calling for political reform
68
What was the Inter-regional Deputies' Group?
What was its significance?
A group of newly elected deputies, including Yeltsin and Sakharov, formed the Inter-regional Deputies’ Group, based on a radical anti-communist agenda (greater republican autonomy).
The creation of the IRDG was an important step towards democracy as it became an organised opposition group with an official position in the Soviet system.
69
What was Soyuz?
Conservatives worried about upholding the territorial integrity of the USSR formed Soyuz. When Congress met, the IRDG and Soyuz formed a sort of unofficial opposition to the government.
Gorbachev was successful in alienating both radicals and moderates.
70
What trends were seen in the Republic elections of 1990?
Anti-communists trends were also obvious in the March 1990 elections
71
Which Party won 85% of the seats in Moscow?
Democratic Russia
72
What did the Republic elections end up doing?
The weakened the power of the Party, increasing the authority of anti-Party and nationalist groups.
Consequences of democratisation, like those of glasnost, were more radical than Gorbachev had anticipated.
73
Why did Gorbachev create the presidency?
Democratisation had succeeded in weakening the Communist Party but did not produce a strong government. This posed problems for Gorbachev who needed a strong central authority in order to push through his economic reforms.
Gorbachev created the presidency because he wanted to increase his power as democratisation weakened his position so created the position to be independent of the Party and the Supreme Soviet.
The Soviet Union has always had an overarching leader to get things done, this was no different.
74
What was significant about Gorbachev's presidency?
He lacked democratic legitimacy, unlike Yeltsin who had been elected to his position.
75
For how long and why was Gorbachev given emergency powers?
Gorbachev was given 18 months of emergency powers to deal with the economic crisis and with growing unrest in the republics.
76
What did he do to annoy many radicals?
On occasion, he used his new powers to censor the press or use Soviet troops to restore order. So was criticised by many radicals for abandoning reforms and establishing a new form of dictatorship.
77
Why did Shevardnadze resign in December 1990?
A key supporter in the 1980s.
He claimed that Gorbachev had abandoned the path to democracy.
78
What was Article 6 of the Soviet Constiution?
Said the Party was ‘the leading and guiding force of Soviet Society’.
79
Who was one of the leading critics of the ending of Article 6?
Sakharov
80
How did conservatives view Article 6?
As non-negotiable.
81
When and why did Gorbachev repeal it?
In March 1990 after facing growing criticism from liberals.
82
What did the abolition of Article 6 mean for the USSR?
Other political parties could now be established to contest elections.
83
By 1975, how many of those in prison or subject to repressive psychiatry were nationalists?
50%
84
What was 'Soviet nationalism' supposed to be when it was established in the 1920s and what was it in reality?
What had Gorbachev failed to understand?
Loyalty to the Union ahead of loyalty to their own nation.
'Soviet nationalism’ was unpopular in non-Russian republics because, in reality, it was based on Russian values and traditions and thus represented Russian superiority.
Gorbachev did not understand this and believed that everyone had become a united ‘Soviet people’.
85
How did economic decline undermine the Union?
Obedience was given by the non-Russian republics in return for the 'social contract'. Economic decline posed a threat to their standard of living, undermining the Union.
86
What did Gorbachev do at the funeral of Chernenko in March 1985?
He met every leader of the communist regimes of Eastern Europe and inform them he would not intervene in their internal affairs. They were free to choose their own path of socialism and thus choose their own governments.
87
How much did the USSR spend annually on propping up communist government around the world?
Approx. $40 bn.
88
What were the consequences of the Sinatra Doctrine in Eastern Europe?
Those leaders who wanted to resist reforms could no longer rely on Soviet military intervention.
89
What were the consequences of the Sinatra Doctrine in Hungary?
A multiparty system was adopted in 1989 after Kadar was sacked in 1986. Gorbachev encouraged this.
90
What were the consequences of the Sinatra Doctrine in Poland?
Solidarity won a landslide election in 1989 and Gorbachev seemed to approve.
91
What were the consequences of the Brezhnev Doctrine in Romania?
Support for the communist government collapsed at the end of 1989 when demonstrations began.
Ceausescu used the army to open fire on the demonstrators, but this increased the unpopularity of the regime. By December, even the army was unwilling to support him - he was forced to flee.
His arrest and execution on Christmas Day sealed the end of communism in Romania.
92
What were the consequences of the Brezhnev Doctrine in East Germany?
What did Gorbachev say when he visited East Berlin in October 1989?
It was more reliant on Soviet support than the other regimes.He warned East Germans that ‘history punishes those who arrive late’. His intention was to promote perestroika in the GDR instead GDR Prime Minister at unification thanked him later for this remark, with an embarrassed smile he declared that he never intended his words to be interpreted in the way they were.
On 9 November, the Berlin Wall, the symbol of the Cold War in Europe, was dismantled by ‘people power’.
93
By when had every pro-Soviet communist government in Eastern Europe disintegrated?
The end of 1989.
94
How did environmental concerns encourage the growth of nationalism within the USSR?
Soil erosion due to the diversion of rivers had ravaged large parts of Central Asia (Brezhnev - rivers that emptied into the Aral Sea were diverted for irrigation. By 2004 the Aral Sea had shrunk by 90%. The soil became toxic and the area became an inhabitable desert. The irrigation scheme had been directed by the Communist Party and involved embezzlement of large sums of money by corrupt local officials).
Industrial pollution was a major concern in the Baltic republics.
As a result of glasnost, the government published environmental data that demonstrated Russia was much more polluted. The green movement began to flourish in Armenia - in 1987 environmentalists organised mass demonstrations against the Soviet government’s environmental policies - were unprecedented and indicated how powerful the green movement was in some of the republics. In 1989 the State Committee for Environmental Protection published a report which acknowledged serious pollution in 16% of the USSR.
95
How did the insecurity of local party leaders encourage the growth of nationalism within the USSR?
'trust in cadres' allowed leaders to build up power bases and wealth through corruption. Reform threatened their lifestyle. To lend their support to popular local concerns could maintain their position.
96
How did culture and language encourage the growth of nationalism within the USSR?
By the 1980s, the USSR was almost equally divided between 145 million Russians and 141 million non-Russians. These nationalities often had a strong sense of their own identity through their native language and cultural heritage.
97
How did Gorbachev's economic and political reforms encourage the growth of nationalism within the USSR?
His economic reforms led to economic decline.
From the mid-1950s to the mid-1980s citizens in the republics were broadly happy with their standard of living, but compared to the West they were still poor. Glasnost allowed them to see this
Glasnost exposed the ways in which Stalin’s government had persecuted non-Russian people.
Glasnost also allowed nationalist groups to publish material that demanded greater autonomy.
98
What was the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict?
Autonomous region within the Azerbaijan republic, populated largely by Armenians. Ethnic tensions arose over the desire of the Armenians in the area to join the Armenian republic. In 1988, these tensions erupted into violence. In November Armenia announced Nagorno-Karabakh was now under its control.
99
How did the central government aim to resolve the conflict and how did this make it worse?
As violence continued the Soviet government imposed direct control - this ‘outside interference’ merely inflamed the situation. Both sides began to denounce the corruption of the USSR. By Jan 1990, the Communist Party had lost control of the Republic of Azerbaijan to Azerbaijani nationalists, who massacred Armenians. Mass Azerbaijani rallies demanded formal independence from the USSR.
100
What was the Tbilisi Massacre and why was it significant?
9 April 1989 - Georgian nationalists protested against the rights of the Abkhazian minority. Soviet troops attempted to restore order by force - killed 19 Georgian protesters and wounded thousands more - outraged Georgian nationalists and the government’s response turned them against the Soviet authorities.
The massacre led to concern among nationalists in all republics that the USSR was prepared to use lethal force to stop nationalism.
101
How did the government lose the support of the military as a result?
The government refused to take responsibility and blamed local military leaders - so military commanders became increasingly unwilling to use force against protester. The government could no longer rely on military support.
102
How did the Baltic states view the Soviet Union?
As an occupying force.
103
When were Popular Front established in all three republics and what were movements known as?
April to October 1988.
Sajudis
104
What happened in Estonia in November 1988?
Estonia declared itself sovereign in November 1988, they did not leave but the government revived the old flag and began educating citizens in the Estonian language.
105
When did the Baltic States stage a mass demonstration for independence and how did they do it?
In August 1989, on the anniversary of the Nazi-Soviet Pact.
The Baltic Way
A human chain of Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians holding hands was organised that stretched across the republics - show of independence. On 23 August 1989, two million people held hands to form a human chain over 600 kilometres long linking three capital cities
106
Who won in the elections in 1990 in the Baltic states?
The Popular Fronts
107
What happened soon after and why was this significant?
All three republics soon declared independence. This was an illegal move and was a direct challenge to the Soviet government.
108
What happened in January 1991 in Lithuania?
Pro-Soviet communists, supported by some Red Army troops, attempted to take over the television station in Vilnius, resulting in at least 13 deaths.
109
How did Yeltsin use the situtation?
Yeltsin asked Russian soldiers to refuse to obey orders from the Soviet government that would suppress political protest.
110
What was Gorbachev's reaction?
Gorbachev denied giving any orders to the army to use force and it seems action was likely taken by rogue elements in the armed forces, who wanted to pressurise Gorbachev into taking a firmer line against the nationalists. Gorbachev did not give in - he issued a statement that made it clear that calls for independence would not be prevented long as the correct constitutional channels were taken. He imposed economic sanctions which were then lifted in the summer.
111
What was Gorbachev's response to growing nationalism in 1990?
He first proposed a new union treaty in 1990 but negotiations were hampered by Gorbachev’s declining authority - Nationalist leaders were elected, he was not.
112
What did he propose in 1991?
A reformed Union. Six of the republics refused to participate but 76% of voters in the remaining nine republics backed a new union. April 1991 - 9+1 agreement was designed to establish a federation of independent states with a single president.
113
What was the result of the Russian Presidential Election in June 1991?
Yeltsin won with 57% of the vote. Communist candidate only gained 16%.
114
What were the limits to nationalism?
Limited experience of independence - in Ukraine, Rukh was founded but it had little support in the eastern half of the republic.
The Soviet Union had allowed a degree of autonomous control.
The republics had been net gainers of Soviet economic investment - especially the Central Asian republics.
The role of ethnic Russians - nationalist resurgence was complicated by the large number of people who did not live in their ethnic homeland (60 mil.).
The March 1991 referendum indicated popular support for maintaining the Soviet Union in all of the republics outside Georgia and the Baltic republics.
Gorbachev’s new Union Treaty of 1991 contained enough concessions for preserving language and customs in each republic to keep support for a continued union alive.
115
What did Yeltsin do in May 1990?
Yeltsin insisted laws made by the Russian parliament were legally superior to Soviet laws - this gave Russia a significant degree of independence. The old Russian flag also emerged.
116
How did Yeltsin encourage Nationalism?
Yeltin’s and fellow reformers were happy to encourage Russian nationalism as a method of undermining the Soviet leader and the Communist Party. Yeltsin’s encouragement to the national groups of the non-Russian republics to ‘take as much sovereignty as you can stomach’ was an example of this.
117
How did the coup begin?
18 August - eight senior Communists announced the establishment of an Emergency Committee which replaced Gorbachev’s government to be run by Gorbachev’s deputy, the head of the army and KGB.
118
Why did they not take power in the name of the CPSU?
They recognised that Communism was unpopular.
119
What was Yeltsin's role?
Yeltsin headed resistance to the coup, army units were sent to the White House to arrest him. The soldiers refused orders and Yeltsin demanded Gorbachev;s return to power. Without the support of the army, the coup collapsed on 21 August.
120
How did the coup affect Yeltsin?
Seen as the defender of democracy.
121
How did the coup affect Gorbachev?
His position was greatly weakened. He declared he still had faith in the Party, but the public did not (Glasnost and senior communists trying reverse democratisation). So whilst Gorbachev was reinstated as President, he had no authority.
122
How did the coup affect the Union?
Fear that the Emergency Committee would re-establish a communist dictatorship, Ukraine and others went to declare their independence by the end of August.
In December, Yeltsin and the leaders of Belarus and the Ukraine signed the Minsk Agreement which stated that the USSR had been replaced by the CIS. 11 of 15 republics joined on 21 Dec.
123
How did Gorbachev's reforms weaken the Party's authority?
Rationalisation led to a decline in economic growth, undermining faith in the Party and Gorbachev initiating more radical reforms.
Glasnost exposed the crimes of previous Soviet governments, undermining not only the Party but also the ideology on which it was based. In this sense glasnost led to a more loss of faith in the system than rationalisation.
Democratisation weakened the Communist Party by allowing alternative candidates to stand. Also weakened Gorbachev’s control of the party as Soviet voters chose candidates - Party no longer had a monopoly of patronage.
124
Was extensive reform necessary in 1985?
In 1985 extensive reform was not necessary. The USSR was experiencing decline, not a crisis. Andropov had successfully eliminated the dissident movement. There was support for more conservative reform within the Party. Therefore Gorbachev played an important role in the collapse of the Soviet Union because he introduced reform despite not being under immediate pressure to do so.
125
How did the failure of his reforms change his thinking by 1990?
By 1990 Gorbachev was prepared to abandon the essential features of Soviet Communism, the very features that held the Union together.
126
Why and How did Gorbachev aim to westernise the Soviet Union?
Gorbachev wanted the Soviet Union to abandon isolation and re-enter ‘our common European home’.
Gorbachev endorsed a number of Western values that previous leaders had rejected. In 1985 he allowed 129 dissidents to move abroad in order to be united with their spouses. In 1986 travel restrictions were eased for all Soviet citizens and radio jamming was stopped.
127
Why was Gorbachev's lack of vision detrimental to the Union?
He was well aware of the underlying weaknesses of the economy. He was much less certain of the right solution to these problems. He implemented a series of uncoordinated policies to address these problems.
128
Why was Gorbachev's naivety detrimental to the Union?
His policies had unintended results and made naive assumptions about their likely impact.
Gorbachev failed to anticipate the effects of glasnost, the extent to which revelations about the past would undermine the claims of the Communist Party. He believed that the propaganda had created a new Soviet people who no longer felt the pull of nationalism
He had not anticipated the collapse of these communist governments and the impact this would have on nationalism in the USSR.
129
Why was Gorbachev electing himself as President a mistake?
His measures to reduce the power of the Party reduced his own powerbase, without ensuring a replacement.His position as President was a poor substitute, especially since he had refused to put the post to a popular election in 1990, a time when he probably would have won. It undermined his authority and presented him as trying to revive the dictatorship.
130
Why was his insensitive handling of national minorities a mistake?
His decision to replace Kunyaev with Kolbin (ethnic Russian) in 1986, his imposition of direct control from Moscow in 1988 over Nagorno-Karabakh and declaring a state of emergency, and his handling of the Baltic republics (Vilnius) - all increased tensions in those areas.
131
Why was Gorbachev's inconsistency a mistake?
1985-1990 he sided with the radical reformists, but in 1990 and 1991 he tended to side with the conservatives. December 1990, Gorbachev removed reformist Batakin from position as minister of the Interior, replacing him with the hardliner Pugo.
His ever-changing position made him enemies on both sides. A factor in persuading conservatives to launch the coup and making reformers shift support to Yeltsin.
132
What does Alexander Dallin (2003) say about Gorbachev's actions?
Gorbachev’s actions led to a string of weaknesses consisting of ‘destabilisation, delegitimation and disintegration’
133
Should Gorbachev have followed the Chinese model?
China embraced market reform more quickly and comprehensively than the Soviet Union and so the economy continued to grow and thus the Communist Party retained its political authority, Gorbachev’s reforms were slow and inconsistent, creating an economic crisis and thus dissatisfaction with the CPSU.
Communist leaders in China introduced economic reform without increasing political freedom, allowing China to be politically stable during the reform process. So the Soviet Union collapsed because Gorbachev tried to introduce economic and political reform at the same time.
134
What view does Archie Brown in The Gorbachev Factor (1997 take?
That Gorbachev did not intend to end the Soviet Union, and his reforms can be defended as a perfectly reasonable attempt to ensure its survival.
135
What view does Historian Ronald Suny believe?
Historian Ronald Suny believes that Gorbachev’s error was to attempt economic reform, democratisation and decolonising the republics all at the same time. At the same time it was too much for the Soviet state to withstand.
But they were all intrinsically linked - one could not take place without the other (economic and political).
136
What other evidence is there in defence of Gorbachev?
The Soviet War in Afghanistan was not of his doing, but it took longer to withdraw from than was anticipated.
The fall of oil prices was not foreseen.
Star Wars kept pressure on the USSR to deter much-needed resources away from welfare spending.
Gorbachev’s foreign policy did end the Cold War, providing the opportunity to shift resources from the military.
137
What did Yeltsin do at the 1988 Nineteenth Party Conference?
Yeltsin attacked Party conservatives publicly to millions on soviet television, again highlighting the factionalism.
138
When did Yeltsin declare Russia's sovereignty and what did this mean for Russia?
June 1990.
In practice this meant that Russian laws were superior to Soviet laws. These moves led to the ‘war of laws’ - disputes between the Russian Government and Soviet authorities about the rule of Russia.
139
What was significant about Yeltsin's resignation from the CPSU and when was it?
Yeltsin publicly resigned from the CPSU in July in a highly dramatic fashion, weakening support for the Party.
140
During 1990 how much did Party membership and popularity drop by?
Party membership dropped from 19.2 million members to 16.5 million. Party popularity also dropped to 18.8%.
141
How did Yeltsin encourage non-Russian republics to establish their indepndence?
During the summer of 1990 Yeltsin visited several Soviet republics advising their leaders to ‘take as much sovereignty as you can swallow’.
142
How did Gorbachev respond?
Gorbachev criticised Yeltsin for encouraging a ‘parade of sovereignties’ and this threatening the survival of the USSR.
143
How did Yeltsin's rise to power lead to the emergence of a new elite who helped in the fall of the USSR?
Almost 70% of Yeltsin’s new government held middle-ranking positions in Gorbachev’s government. Only 13% had been elected to any of Gorbachev’s new democratic institutions - little ‘new men’.
In this sense Yeltsin was able to contribute to the fall of the USSR because he held support of a ‘counter-elite’ - those who supported the destruction of the Union in order to enhance their own power.
144
How did the coup help Yeltsin?
Enhanced his reputation as a defender of freedom and reform. By demanding Gorbachev return to his position as President, he made it not seem like he was using the coup as an opportunity for self-seeking publicity.
He publicly denounced the coup as unconstitutional. He demanded Gorbachev’s return as President, whilst encouraging popular risings against the Communist Party. Statues of Lenin across Russia were demolished, often with the help of Russia’s security services.
145
How did Yeltsin use the coup to attack the Party?
He ordered the suspension of the Communist Party and the closure of Communist Party newspapers including Pravda, and he surrounded the Communist Party headquarters with armed police.
At the end of August the CPSU was suspended across the USSR.
In early November Yeltsin banned the Party in Russia, and seized all of its money and property.
146
By 1989, how many informal groups were calling for reform and democratisation?
60,000
