Russia 1.1 Flashcards
(113 cards)
1
Q
Why did the Sovnarkom have little power at the start of the Revolution?
A
Trevolution happened in Petrograd so Lenin did not have control of other major cities and vast rural areas. Senior figures from the previous government still had a great deal of power and refused to recognise the Bolshevik government. Late Nov - Dukhonion (Chief of staff of Russian Army) refused a direct order from Lenin to stop fighting and bring about peace negotiations. State Bank and Treasury striked, denying funds to the new government.
2
Q
What were the three main issues facing the Bolsheviks?
A
Ownership of land (peasants), the unpopular war and the Bolshevik’s right to govern.
3
Q
The Decree of Land Oct 1917
A
Gave peasants the right to to seize land from the nobility and the Church.
4
Q
The Decree of Peace Oct 1917
A
Withdrawal from WW1.
5
Q
Workers’ Decree (Nov 1917)
A
Established an eight-hour maximum working day and a minimum wage.
6
Q
What did the Bolsheviks promise?
A
‘Peace, Land and Bread’
7
Q
What evidence was there for Bolshevik rule possibly being ‘more democratic than Britain’?
A
Decrees were popular and the Constitution of 1918 meant that the Sovnarkom was responsible to the Congress of Soviets which contained representatives from many political parties, including the Mensheviks and SRs.
8
Q
Who did the Bolsheviks face opposition from?
A
Other left-wing groups denied a share in the power hoped for a coalition government.
Right wing groups feared losing freedoms. Marxism gave power to the proletariat.
Nationalist groups - Ukrainians, Finns - saw a chance to assert their independence as Tsarism ended.
9
Q
What happened on 4 Nov 1917
A
Censorship of Menshevik and SR newspapers - also became difficult to publish.
10
Q
When was the first and only meeting of the Constituent Assembly?
A
5 January 1918
11
Q
Why did Lenin dissolve the Constituent Assembly and what did he describe it as?
A
Bolsheviks, 9 mil - 175 seats and SRs, 21 mil - 410 seats. Assembly as a national parliament would pose a threat to Bolshevik rule - Lenin dissolved it after one meeting (5 Jan) - condemned it as an ‘instrument of the bourgeoisie’ - replaced it with the All Russian Congress.
12
Q
How did the Bolsheviks strip opposition parties of possible support?
A
‘Bourgeois’ classes lost the vote (employers, priests, etc.)
13
Q
How many Mensheviks were arrested in the first three months of 1921?
A
5000
14
Q
Who was angry over the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and why?
A
The Conservatives and those who served in the Tsar’s Army. National humilation.
15
Q
Why did the Allies send troops and money to the Civil War?
A
They furious with Reds for making peace and Reds refused to repay loans made by the Allies to the Tsar’s government and as the Reds nationalised all foreign-owned businesses without compensation.
16
Q
When and what were the signs of military conflict?
A
General Kornilov organised an anti-Bolshevik army in the Don region. SRs and Liberals set up a rival government in Omsk, Siberia.
17
Q
What united the Whites and why did they lose?
A
They were only united by their desire to be rid of Bolsheviks - cooperation was limited and through corruption and inefficiency, funds from the Allies failed to be put to good effect.
18
Q
By when were all White Strongholds destroyed?
A
End of 1920
19
Q
Conscription led to how many soldiers in the Red Army?
A
5 million by 1921.
20
Q
When was the Cheka establsihed?
A
December 1917
21
Q
What was the 5 September 1918 Decree?
A
All class enemies (non-peasant/worker) would be isolated in concentration camps and anyone involved in ‘plots and insurrections’ would be shot - not necessary for Cheka to have evidence.
22
Q
What happened to Church leaders in Kremenchuk?
A
Impaled on spikes
23
Q
Who was arrested after Lenin’s assassination attempt in August 1918?
A
Left-wing groups
24
Q
Results of the Red Terror?
A
1917-23 200,000 executed
Cheka grew to 500,000 by 1921
Under Lenin, one-third of the Party were purged through (non-violent) Chistkas.
25
How did white officers lead to the Whites losing the War?
Many white officers were, at best, poor leaders who did not want to fight and at worst, were corrupt officers who cheated their soldiers out of food and clothes. Planning and cooperation among the Whites was poor. Absence of a single commander and the fact that many White commanders were interested more in the spoils of victory than in joining together to defeat a common enemy decreased the likelihood of victory.
26
What was sold in the black market in Omsk during the Civil War?
Foreign uniforms and munitions were sold on black markets and officers lived in brothels with cocaine and vodka.
27
Why was allied support of minimal significance?
Withdrew before the end of the Civil War as they could no longer afford prolonged or costly action in Russia.
28
How did Trotsky transform the Red Army?
Trotsky took an undisciplined volunteer force and turned it into the Red Army. To ensure a soldier’s loyalty he held their families hostage. In addition, political officers were assigned to all Red Army units to ensure they complied with Trotsky’s orders and remained loyal to the Communists. He also toured every Front in an armoured train checking upon units and delivering political speeches.
29
How did geographical factors help the Bolsheviks win the war?
Bolsheviks had the central area - capital moved to Moscow, hub of railway network - easier to transport men and munitions. It also contained the main armament factories. Central area heavily population (60 million) - could conscript more men - Red armies often larger than White opponents. Whites were scattered around this large area - separated by large distances. This made communications and the movement of men and weapons very difficult. Had no telephone links - officers on horseback to convey messages.
30
Why did the Bolshevik state become highly centralised and authoritarian after the Civil War?
The Bolshevik state became highly centralised and authoritarian due to the demands of the Civil War - required quick decision making and direction of resources by the government. Power now in hands of the Politburo. Or it could be argued that centralisation was already inherent in the Communist Party philosophy. Although local party representatives were sent to Party Congress, the more significant process was sending out representatives from the centre to gradually take control of local Party organisations bringing them into line with central leadership (from 1919). The Soviets began as revolutionary mass bodies but quickly became bureaucratic organs of local government under central control.
31
By the early 1920s, why had real power shifted from the State to the Party?
Because Lenin had to act quickly he tended to rely on the Politburo - preferred it to Sovnarkom as it was smaller (so could reach decisions quicker) and contained his most loyal supporters (Stalin, Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev). Lenin did not abolish the Sovnarkom, it simply ceased to function as the main centre of government. The rise of the Politburo indicated the new government was based on the Communist Party rather than the Soviets.
32
Why did Senior Communists prefer to work through the Party?
Senior Communists preferred work through the Communist Party, even at a local level - didn’t trust local soviets (still had some SRs and Mensheviks). Members of both the Politburo and Sovnarkom often sent their deputies to the latter.
33
What changed in the Cheka in 1919?
From 1919 the Cheka was responsible to the Politburo rather than the Sovnarkom.
34
The Kronstadt Mutiny (1921)
Revolt from sailors previously loyal to the Bolsheviks - against the imposition of orders from the local soviet from the government. Slogan was ‘Soviets without Bolsheviks’ - crushed by the Red Army by the revolt was a shock as sailors were previously loyal. Demanded a series of reforms including: free and fair elections of new Soviets, abolition of the Cheka, end to war communism, release of Mensheviks and SRs.
35
Tambov Uprising (1920-21)
Sparked by Bolsheviks units requisitioning grain for use in the city (urban poor - huge faction of Bolshevik supporters) and army. Formed the Green Army - controlled large areas. In all major cities there were strikes against Communist policies. In Petrograd the Red Army opened fire on unarmed workers - eventually crushed by 50,000 Bolshevik soldiers and deporting 100,000 to labour camps.
36
By much did Party membership increase by during the Civil War?
300,000 (1917) to 730,000 (1921)
37
Why was democratic centralism no longer apparent after the Civil War?
Lenin ruled by decree so Soviets had no power - merely carried out orders
38
Name some factions in the Party and how did Lenin remove them?
Workers' Opposition
Democratic Centraliststs
To remove opposition, Lenin banned the formation of factions with the Party - ‘On Party Unity’ - punishment was expulsion.
39
Did Lenin have a personal dictatorship?
Lenin was a Politburo member and Chairman of the Sovnarkom but preferred a collective leadership and called any suggestion of a personal dictatorship as ‘utter nonsense’.
40
During which events did Lenin threaten to resign?
He did this over the 1918 Peace Treaty and the NEP (1921).
41
Examples of debate within the Party and after which event did debate within the Party become stifled?
Kamenev and Zinoviev had opposed Lenin’s decision to launch a revolution in 1917.
Fierce debate in the Party whether to accept the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
Introduction of NEP led to left and right wing factions in the Party.
After the Tenth Party Congress, 'On Party Unity' greatly reduced open debate.
42
How many Communist Party members by 1924?
1 million
43
Why did the Party develop the nonmenklatura system?
To ensure a committed Communist Party bureaucracy, the Party developed the nomenklatura system - evidence of commitment to Party was necessary to stay on the list (of job appointment) - to not be loyal was to lose your place on the list and your chance at promotion - an effective tool of centralisation by the General Secretary.
44
How did the Soviet Constitution 1924 lead to increased centralisation?
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was in theory a federal state but in practice tightened the authority of the Communist Party. In theory each republic had equal rights (including secession - never exercised). Party bodies in various (e.g. Ukraine) were now firmly under control of the Central Party structure
45
How much of the land, population and party members were in Russia?
90% of land area, 72% of the population and 75% of party members.
46
How many personal files did Stalin have access to?
26,000
47
The Lenin Enrolment
1923-25.
Aim was to increase the number of industrial workers in the Party ranks - over 500,000 recruited. New members were largely poorly educated and politically naive - only saw Party as a source of employment and other privileges - to retain these that had to be loyal to those who allowed them into the Party - the General Secretary (Stalin) - gave him powers of patronage. Party Congress dominated by people who owed positions and loyalty to Stalin.
48
What did Lenin's Testament say about:
Trotsky
Stalin
Zinoviev and Kamenev
Bukharin
Trotsky - Lenin's right hand - capable but arrogant.
Stalin - called for him to be sacked - rudeness and lack of tolerance.
Zinoviev and Kamenev - reminded Central Committee they were disloyal just before Revolution.
Bukharin - Lenin's 'golden boy' - but did not fully understand Lenin's ideology.
49
Why was Lenin's Testament kept secret?
Zinoviev and Kamenev claimed that Stalin had changed and therefore there was no need for him to lose his post - accepted by Central Committee. Testament was also critical of many senior Communists - Zinoviev and Kamenev argued it undermined the authority of the government so should be kept secret. Central Committee agreed
50
What percentage of those at the Twelfth Party Congress in 1923 were 'recommended by the Central Committee'?
30%
51
What happened at the Thirteenth Party Congress 1924?
Trotsky and the Left Opposition were defeated at the Thirteenth Party Congress 1924 for forming factions. Trotsky was condemned but kept his Politburo seat.
52
What happened at the Fourteenth Party Congress in December 1925?
Zinoviev and Kamenev called for Stalin to be removed as General Secretary and criticised 'Socialism in One Country'.
When votes were cast the Duumvirate won 559 to 65.
Trotsky remained silent and was forced to resign as head of the Red Army - fears over military dictatorship.
53
Why did Trotsky come back in 1927?
Rumours of German Invasion, 'Kulak grain strike' and raid on Soviet trade mission in London.
54
What happened at the Fifteenth Party Congress in 1927
Trotsky, Zinoviev and Kamenev were expelled from the Party - expulsion can only be attributed to Stalin’s growing power.
Zinoviev and Kamenev publicly renounced their views - readmitted into the Party
55
What was Stalin known as in the Party?
'The outstanding mediocrity'
'Grey-blur'
56
Why did Stalin stop advocating for the NEP when it starting failing in 1928?
Swing to the Left was tactical - with the removal of its leaders, Stalin assumed leadership and thus assumed support.
57
What did Stalin publish to challenge Bukharin's theoretical prestige?
‘The Foundations of Leninism’
58
What did Bukharin say about Stalin?
Someone who ‘subordinates everything to his appetite for power’.
59
What happened at the April 1929 Central Committee meeting?
Bukharin was forced to admit his ‘political errors’ and recognise the necessity of forced industrialisation and collectivisation. The Right Opposition were identified by name and removed from all positions.
60
What did Stalin do to Bukharin between April and November 1929?
Stalin led a vigorous campaign in the Soviet press
61
Why was there a Chistka between 1932-35 and what resulted from it?
The Chistka was designed to remove these officials, who resented collectivisation, to speed up the implementation of the economic policy.
By 1935, 22% of the Party had been removed from their posts. It was essentially a non-violent process but it did show that opposition to Stalin’s policies were increasing.
62
Evidence for Stalin's terror being imaginative?
One victim was accused of meeting fellow saboteurs in a hotel that was not built at the time.
Bizarre nature of purges demonstrates Stalin’s paranoid personality - he told Khrushchev ‘I trust nobody, not even myself’.
63
Evidence for Stalin's increasing criticism from 1932?
Ryutin (former Party secretary) - issued a highly critical document of Stalin to the Central Committee - accused Stalin of building a personal dictatorship and called the central committee to remove him from power.
Brutality used to enforce collectivisation was criticised heavily. Peasant resistance left to serious unrest (especially in the Ukraine and Caucasus region) - raised by Stalin’s own wife before she committed suicide in 1932.
Party officials were often critical of the unrealistic targets set under the Five Year Plan and drew attention to the fact they could not be achieved.
Seventeenth Party Congress - criticism grew stronger - supposed to be ‘Congress of Victors’ - celebrating the successes of the First Five Year Plan but moderates put pressure on Kirov, the Leningrad Party Secretary, to address these criticisms (unrealistic targets + less emphasis on production of consumer goods). Kirov received a wave of support and ovations which matched those which Stalin received.
64
Murder of Kirov. When? What? Why?
December 1934.
Nikolayev.
NKVD trained him to use a pistol and Kirov was without bodyguard at the time. Official explanation - Nikolayev was a part of an opposition group led by Kamenev and Zinoviev. Both arrested - trial in Jan 1935 - sentenced to long-term imprisonment. Kirov was the catalyst for the Great Purge.
65
How were the show trials used?
Often filmed for propaganda in cinemas and recorded for radio. Actions could be justified against leading Party members and warned others.
66
Name the three main show trials between 1936 and 1938.
The Trial of the Sixteen, Aug 1936 - Involved leaders on the Left.
The Trial of the Seventeen, 1937 - Purge of officials.
The Trial of the Twenty-one, 1938 - a purge of the Right.
67
Had show trials been used before?
Yes, e.g. Shakhty Trial 1928 - managers and technical experts had been put on trial for holding back the process of industrialisation. Used to send a message to workers in the Soviet Union: lack of commitment to the party would not be tolerated.
68
Army 1937-38 Purges statistics.
60% of marshals purged, 14 out of 16 army commanders and 35,000 officers were either shot or imprisoned. The Navy lost every one of their admirals
69
How did Stalin add to the terror?
Stalin read lists of necessary arrests, adding names on occasions and adding quotas - local Party secretaries had their own quotas to reach.
70
Trotsky's view on the terror?
To Trotsky it marked Stalin’s betrayal of the Revolution, a personal dictatorship rather than for the proletariat.
71
Stalin's view on the terror?
The use of terror prevented a conservative reaction and kept the revolutionary spirit alive. Terror safeguarded Stalin and the Communist Party’s position.
72
Consequences of Stalin's terror?
1929-39 - estimated 24 million to labour camps where 13 million died.
Great Terror removed a whole generation of communists who worked with Lenin. Also led to a new generation of Communist Party leaders who were loyal to Stalin. Established the principle that Stalin had the right to use terror against anyone disloyal to him.
73
What was a key consequence of Stalin's political method?
No political institution gained any real power. All Party and State institutions were rubber stamping bodies for policies decided by Stalin.
74
Politburo meeting frequency statistic
The Politburo met weekly in 1920 to nine times a year by the mid-1930s.
75
What did Stalin say about the Soviet Constitution of 1936?
‘the Constitution of the USSR is the only thoroughly democratic constitution in the world’.
76
Three main articles of the Constitution?
What did it promise?
Article 123 - Right to vote.
Article 124 - Freedom of Religion.
Article 125 - Freedom of Press.
Employment - contrasting the suffering in Western countries (Great Depression).
77
Was the Constitution a fraud?
Yes. Listed restrictions on a citizen’s rights and was clear nothing could threaten the Communist Party’s dominance. Democracy was limited to the leadership.
78
Who was the wording of the Constitution aimed at?
Wording directed at foreign governments + soviet citizens.
79
Examples of limits on Stalin's power
Stalin wanted to execute Ryutin, who denounced him in 1932. The Politburo refused, and Ryutin was given 10 years in a labour camp.
Stalin’s ambitious targets for the Second Five-Year Plan were considered too high. The Politburo felt it would result in chaos and opposition. Stalin forced to redraft plan quickly with lower targets.
Kirov, leader of the Party in Leningrad and member of the Politburo - may have represented the moderate faction in Party - secured more votes than Stalin in elections to the Central Committee at Party Congress of 1934.
80
Why did Stalin only become Chair of the Council of Ministers in 1941?
There was a need for an efficient government during wartime. Purges in the 1930s of senior levels of the state, party and military sabotaged all aspects of the government - became grossly inefficient.
81
How did Stalin promote effective government during the War?
He ended mass terror.
He allowed State power to grow.
Changed the composition of the Politburo. As power of state grew, Ministers joined the Politburo and members of the Politburo were given important ministerial jobs. Meant that the Politburo increasingly co-ordinated state activity as well as Party activity.
82
How did Stalin ensure no political group grew large enough to rival him?
1938 - Politburo was the most senior committee in government. By 1942, the GKO became the most powerful committee and after the war, the Council of Ministers became more powerful. By shifting centres of power in the government, Stalin was able to ensure that none of these grew powerful enough to rival him.
83
What was the Leningrad Affair of 1949?
Stalin launched a purge against the Leningrad Party - concerned (Russia's second largest city) was developing a degree of independence from Moscow - 100 officials shot - 2000 arrested and dismissed.
84
What was the Mingrelian Affair of 1951?
Purge of Party in Georgia - removed some of Beria's allies - seemed to target those of Mingrelian nationality (of which Beria was).
85
How and why did Stalin bring in newcomers into the Presidium?
He enlarged the Presidium from 10 to 36 members in order to bring in newcomers who had no links to Beria (e.g. Brezhnev). Stalin's weakness - could not remove Beria or Malenkov's supporters - some were actually promoted.
86
Who were the three main contenders after Stalin's death and what were their power bases?
Malenkov - Premier - State
Beria - Head of MVD - MVD
Khrushchev - General Secretary - Central Committee and Party.
87
How and why did Beria reform the MVD?
Reformed MVD to calm the fears of his rivals.
March 1953 - Amnesty introduced for non-political prisoners serving short sentences.
MVD lost great economic power - used Gulag labour to construct factories and power stations as well as mining precious metals - prison labour no longer used this way.
Doctors' plot was denounced as false and Kremlin doctors arrested by Stalin were released.
Result of reforms: Gulag population: 2.4 mil (1956) to 1.6 mil (1958)
88
Why was Beria removed?
Malenkov and Khrushchev still saw him as a threat.
89
What early personnel changes did Khrushchev make?
Between 1953 and 1956 Khrushchev replaced 44% of those elected to the central committee in 1952 and half of all regional Party secretaries.
90
How did Khrushchev weaken the State's power?
Mid-1954 government restructured - 55 central soviet ministers to 25. Amount of economic power exercised by republics increased - Central control over Soviet Industry fell from 68% to 44%.
91
Early steps of de-stalinisation?
Khrushchev and Malenkov united in 'humanising' communism. Plans to turn Stalin's dacha into a museum were scrapped. First time since 1930s - no official celebrations of Stalin's birthday. Newspapers which had traditionally been full of Stalin's quotes, started quoting Marx and Lenin.
92
Why was the Secret Speech a huge risk?
Stalin was respected as a founder of the Soviet system so risked undermining the authority of the Soviet Union and Communism
93
How did Khrushchev criticise Stalin?
Argued Stalin created a personal dictatorship and placed himself above the Party.
Also claimed he committed enormous crimes - the scale of the Great terror which Stalin had concealed from the party. He also quoted the criticism from Lenin's Testament which was kept secret.
94
Consequences of the Secret Speech
Some delegates suffered heart attacks and others took their own lives after hearing the true scale of Stalin’s crimes.
One copy of the speech was leaked to the West and was not published in the USSR until 1989.
95
Examples of destalinisation?
Party Commission set up in May 1954 to end terror.
Between 1953 and 1960, 2 million prisoners were released.
Party and government officials no longer faced jail for failing to meet targets.
96
What were some problems with de-stalinisation?
Criticism of Stalin and change of leadership sparked Hungarian uprising.
Made some question the legitimacy of Communist rule. Student demonstrations in favour of multi-party democracy at Moscow state university (1957) - suppressed by Communist authorities.
97
What two main things did Khrushchev do in December 1957?
Khrushchev secretly authorised the establishment of a special commission (headed by Brezhnev, to suppress anti-communist activities). Finally, Khrushchev's New Year's Eve speech acknowledged that Communists were 'Stalinists'. By the end of 1957, it was clear that de-stalinisation ended.
98
What did Khrushchev do in 1957 that earnt him new criticism in the Party?
Introduced fixed terms for senior Communists to ensure they were replaced regularly - two thirds of regional secretaries & Presidium replaced (1957-1961)
To decentralise the Party he abolished some of the central ministries that oversaw the economy and devolved power to 105 newly created economic councils (Sovnarkhozes). The Ministry of Agriculture moved away from Moscow to be ‘closer to the fields’.
Reforms meant many Communist officials were demoted, lost their jobs or moved away from Moscow. Now there was new criticism of Khrushchev in the Party.
99
What was and who headed the Anti-Party Group?
Malenkov and Molotov, persuaded Presidium - June 1957, a majority of the Presidium voted to replace Khrushchev.
100
How did Khrushchev defend himself?
Khrushchev argued the decision could only be taken by the Central Committee (argued they appointed him so only they could dismiss him).
101
How did he deal with Malenkov and Molotov and why was this significant?
Khrushchev's rivals were dealt not with using terror: Malenkov to direct a hydro-electric station in Kazakhstan and Molotov to be a Soviet ambassador to outer Mongolia.
Coup was significant: demonstrated senior Communists would no longer use political terror against each other and power depended on the Central Committee.
He remarked himself, 'Stalin would have had them shot'.
102
How did Khrushchev consolidate power in March 1958? Did he become an all-powerful dictator?
By taking over as prime minister whilst keeping other positions. Now headed both the party and government but it would be wrong to see him as an all-powerful dictator (like Stalin) - power was subject to the central committee and debate inside the party was common.
103
What were some of Khrushchev's final reforms?
Twenty-second party Congress (Oct 1961) - main focus was economic but Khrushchev (feeling confident after the coup) used Congress to restart de-stalinisation. He accused Stalin of being involved in Kirov's murder and Congress voted to remove Stalin's body from Lenin's mausoleum in Red Square. He also introduced fixed terms for jobs within the Party - including a 16 year fixed term for Central Committee members.
1962 party reforms - effectively split the Party in two - one half put in charge of agriculture and the other half industry. New division extended to the Central Committee as he hoped it would boost economic growth.
104
How did Brezhnev reverse de-Stalinisation?
He labelled many of the reforms as 'hare-brained schemes'.
The division of the party into agricultural and industrial sections was dropped.
'Stability of cadres' - long, unbroken tenures in their jobs.
105
By how much did party membership increase between 1953 and 1980?
6.9 million (1953) to 17 million (1980).
106
Soviet Constitution of 1977
Gave right to citizens to criticise incompetent and ineffective Party secretaries. But posts within the party and government were filled by appointment rather than genuine election. Article 6 of the constitution asserted the primacy of the party over the state - ‘mature socialism’.
107
What and when was the 'Congress of Silence'?
Twenty Third Party Congress (1966) involved so little discussion - referred to as 'the Congress of Silence' - because Brezhnev wanted to avoid the Stalin question: only changes: Presidium to Politburo and First Secretary to General Secretary.
108
What did Brezhnev's mother say to him and why?
'what will you do if the Bolsheviks return to power?'. Because he enjoyed power and luxury - numerous medals (Lenin Peace Prize), western limousines and hunting.
109
Figes quote about Brezhnev?
‘The Brezhnev system was a coalition of Politburo oligarchy. What united them was the preservation of the status quo.' - Historian, Figes
110
Who were the oligarchs under Brezhnev referred to as?
Dnepropetrovsk Mafia
111
Consequences of 'trust in cadres' and the subsequent gerontocracy?
'stability of cadres' led to an increasingly static government - extremely limited opportunities for promotion - middle-ranking officials stuck in dead-end jobs with no prospect of promotion - meant no incentive to work hard, thus limiting change and innovation.Brezhnev's critics argued his style of government created a generational gap between government and society - government no longer understood society.
Between 1964 and 1971 only two people were promoted to the Politburo. At Stalin's final Party Congress, only 56% of the Central Committee were retained, in 1976 this reached 79% - many of those not retained died of old age. By 1984, meetings were now only 40 minutes (reflects Gerontocracy).
112
What was the Cotton Affair and who exposed it?
Millions of roubles being claimed for non-existent cotton as officials fiddled with figures.
Gorbachev.
113
What reforms did Andropov introduce?
Abandoned 'stability in cadres' policy - replacing a quarter of senior officials.
Introduced small-scale economic reforms focusing on labour discipline.
Most important initiative was his anti-corruption campaign - campaign attacked senior figures (e g. he prosecuted the Red Army General and Minister of the Interior, Shchelokov - part of Dnepropetrovsk Mafia, and investigated Galina Brezhneva's lover, 'Boris the gypsy'. Included media exposes of corrupt officials.
