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Psych2180E > Chp 6 - Memory > Flashcards

Chp 6 - Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Long term memory (4) features

A

Capacity: Unlimited
Duration: Indefinite
Forms of storage: varied

Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

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2
Q

Types of LTM (4)

A

Declarative memory (i.e., “how things are…”)
- Semantic memory
- Episodic memory
Procedural memory (i.e., “how to…”)

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3
Q

Relearning task (Ebbinghaus)

A

Use non-sense syllables to avoid confound
Had others read to him in fast speed
- Try to recall them all back, repeatedly, count no of trials until can recall perfectly, Then relearn with a delay

Found that the relearning with much easier

e.g. 10 trials to learn, relearning took 6 trials
= difference = 4 = 4/10= 40% saving score (how much time saved in the learning process) Relearning task (Ebbinghaus)

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4
Q

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve (retention curve) shows:

A

shows how information is lost over time when you don’t try to retain it.

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5
Q

Different tasks used to study LTM in lab: (4)

A

Relearning task (Ebbinghaus)
Paired association task
Recall Task (Free/Serial/Queued)
Recognition tasks

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6
Q

Paired association task

A

a technique used in studying learning in which participants learn syllables, words, or other items in pairs and are later presented with one half of each pair to which they must respond with the matching half.

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7
Q

encoding

A

to input or take into memory, to convert in a usable mental form, to store into memory

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8
Q

Metamemory

A

thinking about thinking
- We are not overly accurate on what we do or don’t know

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9
Q

Encoding methods (Elaborative rehearsal) (10)

A
  • spacing effect
  • Self-Reference effect (relate info to us personally)
  • generation effect
  • Production effect
  • Testing effect
  • enactment
  • Visual imagery
  • Organisation
  • Encoding specificity
  • mnemonics

(Repetition (Massed vs. distributed))

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10
Q

Self-Reference effect

A

The tendency for people to better remember information when it has been encoded in reference to the self

e.g.
Present list of personality traits, how well does this trait describe you?
Remember the words that feel described themselves well

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11
Q

Encoding specificity

A

Context of learning is more important
information is encoded into memory not a set of isolated , individual items
- instead is each item

Scuba diving study
- Half of them memorize list of words under water or beach
- Same context retrieval or opposite
- Retrieval at the same place cause better memory

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12
Q

mnemonics (2+3)

A

Acronyms (e.g., OCEAN)

  • Pairing verbal with nonverbal info

Method of loci:

  • Visual imagery, choose a set of diff visual locations
  • Pick out landmarks to trace
  • e.g. pair a landmark with grocery list items
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13
Q

production effect

A

Writing, speaking it out or typing it out for deeper processing

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14
Q

Rehearsal (3)

A

Mental practice

Maintenance rehearsal

  • rote memorization

Elaborative rehearsal

  • information is embellished, organized, or related to existing knowledge (e.g., meaningful learning)
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15
Q

The spacing effect

A

demonstrates that learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out.

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16
Q

The generation effect

A

phenomenon where information is better remembered if it is generated from one’s own mind rather than simply read.

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17
Q

Enactment effect

A

describe the fact that verb phrases are memorized better if a learner performs the described action during learning, compared to just getting the verbal information or seeing someone else perform the action.

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18
Q

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) Modal Model (5)

A

Modal model of memory: The standard model of memory consists of 3 primary components

The sensory registers
Short-term store
Long-term store

  • Control processes
  • Encoding
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19
Q

Levels of processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) (4)

A

Suggests that memory is dependent on the depth (level) at which the information is processed as it is being encoded
→ Shallow processing: takes in only surface features of the info
→ Deeper processing: must consider meaning
→ Maintenance vs elaborative rehearsal
Hyde & Jenkins (1969)

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20
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

straight repeating of information to memorize it.

  • also called rote rehearsal.
  • This type of rehearsal can be mental
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21
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by linking new information to what one already knows.

For instance, when trying to remember that someone is named George, one might think of five other things one knows about people named George.

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22
Q

Criticisms of the Levels of Processing approach: (3)

A

→ Circularity – determination of whether something has been processed at either a shallow or deep level is made after the fact
→ Does not account for task effects

task effects: when diff memory tasks are used (e.g. recognition vs. recall)

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23
Q

Jenkins & Dallenbach (1924) Sleeping vs. awake group

A

– participants who had been allowed to sleep recalled more syllables after a delay than those who had stayed awake

  • sleeping group had less probability for interference by other words
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24
Q

organisation

A

recalling related words together, grouping and clusters on information being stored

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25
Q

consolidation (5)

A
  • Decreased rate of forgetting over time can be explained by assuming older memories have had more consolidation time
  • Patients with retrograde amnesia often show greatest forgetting for memories formed shortly before amnesia onset
  • “Blackouts” caused by excessive drinking – failure to consolidate?
  • Consolidation during sleep
  • Reconsolidation (Chan & LaPaglia, 2013)
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26
Q

Proactive Interference (PI)
Keppel and Underwood (1962)

A

Older material interferes forward in time with recollection of current stimulus​
e.g., stimuli learnt from an earlier list cause difficulty in recalling later words

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27
Q

Retroactive Interference (RI)

A

Newer material interferes backward in time with recollection of older items​

e.g., recalling items from list 1 but recalling from list 2​

28
Q

Patient HM

A
  • Removed medial temporal lobes bilaterally (includes the hippocampus)
  • Severe anterograde memory
  • Impaired in spatial/ topographical memory

Had intact STM:
- Skills (motor learning)
- Mirror drawing task

29
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

impairment in ability to learn and remember information encountered after the onset of amnesia

30
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

Impairment in ability to remember events prior to amnesia onset

31
Q

Korsakoff’s syndrome

A

amnesia due to chronic alcohol abuse

More studied as it is hard to study those with closed head surgery
Possible to have both anterograde/ retrograde

32
Q

Non-declarative (implicit) (4)

A

Skills and habits
Priming
Simple classical conditioning (involuntary)
Non-associative learning

33
Q

autobiographical memory vs episodic memory

A

Episodic memory is about recollection of events in one’s past.

  • Autobiographical memory is one’s personal history that may include episodic memories in addition to other facts about oneself (such as one’s place and date of birth) (autobiographic semantic memory)
34
Q

Episodic & semantic memory: separate systems? (4)

A

Patients with amnesia often have greater impairments to episodic memory than semantic memory

Patients with semantic dementia often have greater impairments to semantic memory than episodic

Evidence suggests that episodic and semantic memory may rely on different brain regions

rhinal: semantic
hippocampus: episodic

35
Q

Episodic & semantic memory: Interdependence

A

Renoult et al. (2016) – used EEG to look for event-related potentials (ERPs) in response to episodic and semantic memory retrieval

→ ERPs differed between episodic and semantic memory retrieval
→ Tanguay et al. (2018); Greenberg et al. (2009)

36
Q

Semanticisation

A

when an episodic memory becomes a semantic memory over time (Robin & Moscovitch, 2017)

37
Q

the testing effect

A

demonstrating that taking tests during the learning phase facilitates later retrieval from long-term memory.

38
Q

Repetition priming vs. Procedural Memory

A
  • Priming occurs rapidly whereas procedural memory/skill learning is typically slow and gradual
  • Priming is tied to specific stimuli whereas skill learning typically generalizes to other stimuli
39
Q

Perceptual priming

A

occurs when repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to facilitated processing of its perceptual features

40
Q

Conceptual priming

A

occurs when repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to facilitated processing of its meaning

41
Q

Sins of Omission (3)

A

Sometimes total forgetting
1) Transience
2) Absentmindedness
3) Blocking

42
Q

Sins of Omission: 1) Transience

A
  • Situations where the memory is just not there, maybe because of decay or interference
  • Used to refer to the loss of info formed
  • Memory probably won’t come back
43
Q

Sins of Omission: 2) Absentmindedness

A
  • We don’t really encode things that aren’t required for us to pay attention to
  • Intersection between LTM and attention
44
Q

Sins of Omission: 3) Blocking

A
  • Situations where the failure to retrieve
  • more temporary
  • TOT
45
Q

Sins of Commission (4)

A

1) Persistence
2) Misattribution
3) Suggestibility
4) Bias

46
Q

Sins of Commission: 1) Persistence (3)

A

Situations where we have unwanted memory popping up

Common in PTSD

Might be brought up by retrieval cues

47
Q

Sins of Commission: 2) Misattribution

A

The memory is correct, but attributing to the wrong source

e.g. A: I read this off a news article! -> B: No, I told you that.

48
Q

Sins of Commission: 3) Suggestibility

A

Incorporating info provided by other people

e.g. justice system, eyewitness

We are highly suggestable when it comes to memory

49
Q

Sins of Commission: 4) Bias (3)

A

Tendency for our past knowledge/ current beliefs on how we remember other things

Bias affects encoding

Confirmation bias, confirming what we already believe

50
Q

MEGYRA & BURTON (2008) faces

A

Participants asked to study a face (live or photographed) for 30 uninterrupted seconds, and then immediately asked to pick out the face they had just seen from an array of 10 photos

Overall accuracy: 66%!

51
Q

MORGAN ET AL. (2004) military

A

Studied military recruits during traumatic training exercises

Highly traumatic situations resulted in worse memory for the faces of interrogators/guards

52
Q

Memory and stress curves/ models

A

Yerkes-Dodson Law

  • physiological arousal to a certain point can increase memory accuracy (inverted U)

The “Catastrophe” Model

  • to some extent stress aids memory accuracy
  • too high stress cause worse memory (dramatic drop)
53
Q

Memory Narrowing (2)

A

People show excellent memory for things that are central for emotional event but poorer memory for peripheral details

Central details due to the fact to be elaborated later from other story teller, details get reinforced into the memory

54
Q

Weapon focus effect

A

Presence of a weapon can narrow the focus on the weapon, but has a bad peripheral vison of the scene (e.g. cannot tell the face of the person holding the weapon)

55
Q

BIGGS ET AL. (2014): weapons photos

A

Participants were shown photos of people holding either a weapon or a neutral item (e.g., a remote control): visual fixation points tracked

Experiment 1:
Participants pointed a (non-working) gun

Experiment 2:
Participants held a metal cylinder

Experiment 3:
Gun holstered at the participant’s hip

Results:
When looking at photos of people holding actual weapons:

  • Participants in Experiment 1 spent more time looking at the person’s face
  • Participants in Experiments 2 & 3 spent more time looking at the weapon (expected weapon focus effect)
56
Q

The misinformation effect

A

Memory is subject to post-event distortions when people are presented with misleading information after the fact

57
Q

Unconsicous Transference (2)

A

Witnesses may unconsciously misidentify a person as the perpetrator of a crime because that person seems familiar to them

Photo bias
- Increase in probability to being accused as the perpetrator if you’ve been seen in a photo

58
Q

Change Blindness (4)

A

a failure to detect changes in the presence, identity or location of objects in scenes, is also strongest when subjects do not expect changes to occur.

Demonstrates limited capacity to take in all aspects of a scene at the same time

Illusion of continuity

Results from our natural tendency to use top-down processing (fill in the gaps)

59
Q

LOFTUS & PALMER (1974): car accident

A

Participants watched a video of a minor car accident and then asked leading questions about it

“smashed” vs. “hit” – the participants in the leading condition estimated the cars’ speeds as higher and recalled more broken glass

60
Q

LOFTUS ET AL. (1978): stop yield experiment

A

In the classic study (Loftus, Miller, & Burns, 1978), participants viewed slides of a car accident and were later asked questions about it. The critical misleading question asked whether there was a “stop” or a “yield” sign at the intersection where the car made the fatal turn.

  • Participants who were misled about the type of road sign present in the original slide show were more likely to make errors when presented with two pictures and asked which had been in the original slide deck
61
Q

BROWN ET AL. (1977): criminals

A

Participants shown 10 people labeled as “criminals

Participants subsequently shown a photo array of 15 mugshots (some “criminals”, some “non-criminals”)
- In a lineup one week later, participants were more likely to label a “non-criminal” as one of the original “criminals” if they had seen the person’s mugshot

62
Q

False Memories

A

manipulate people into thinking they remember something that didn’t actually happen

63
Q

The DRM paradigm (3)

A

• Used in the laboratory
• Recall and recognition type tasks
• Researchers hope to create a false memory through related words

64
Q

Remember know procedure (3)

A

• To investigate recollection and familiarity
• Do you recognise this word? Further questions about the word and if you can, it signifies you remember
• Metamemory: how confident people are in their responses

65
Q

Loftus & Pickerell (1995)
shopping mall

A

Involved implanting false memories about being lost in the shopping mall as a child

  • Researchers were able to elicit a false memory in about ¼ of their participants

• Interviewed about 3 times in a 2 week period

Priming

66
Q

Garry et al. (2007) (3) hurricane

A

• Participants read a news article about a hurricane; some saw the article accompanied by a pre-hurricane phots, the others a post hurricane photo

• Not told to remember any info
• After a week, brought in for a surprise recognition task, “was this statement on the paper?’

○ Those who saw the post photo, recall the newspaper reporting injuries and deaths despite none vs. The pre-hurricane group

67
Q

Social media and memory

A

When info presented online in spoken words, they are better remembered than formally reported info

Psych2180E (8 decks)

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