Chr. 16 - Sensory, Motor, and Integrative Systems Flashcards
(176 cards)
1
Q
[16.1] Define “sensation”.
A
The conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the external or internal environment.
2
Q
[16.1] Define “perception”.
A
The conscious interpretation of sensations.
3
Q
[16.1] What is “sensory modality”?
A
A unique type of sensation such as touch, pain, vision, or hearing.
4
Q
[16.1] What are the types of sensory modality?
A
General senses and special senses.
5
Q
[16.1] Define “general senses”.
A
General senses are somatic and visceral senses.
6
Q
[16.1] Define “somatic senses”.
A
Senses of the skin and muscle including tactile, thermal, pain, and proprioception.
7
Q
[16.1] Describe “visceral senses”.
A
Sensory information about conditions within internal organs, including pressure, stretch, chemical, temperature.
8
Q
[16.1] Define “special senses”.
A
Sensory modalities of smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium.
9
Q
[16.1] What is a sensory receptor?
A
A specialized cell or dendrites of a sensory neuron responding vigorously to a stimulus.
10
Q
[16.1] List the events of a sensation occuring.
A
- Stimulation of the sensory receptor.
- Transduction of the stimulus.
- Generation of nerve impulses.
- Integration of sensory input.
11
Q
[16.1] Describe the “stimulation of the sensory receptor” event.
A
An appropriate stimulus occurs within a receptor’s receptive field.
12
Q
[16.1] Describe the “transduction of the stimulus” event.
A
A receptor converts the energy of the stimulus into a graded potential.
13
Q
[16.1] Describe the “generation of nerve impulses” event.
A
A graded potential reaches threshold and triggers an action potential.
14
Q
[16.1] Describe the “integration of sensory input” event.
A
An associated region of the CNS receives the action potential and processes the impulse.
15
Q
[16.1] List the characteristics used to classify sensory receptors.
A
- Microscopic structure.
- Location of the receptors/origin of stimuli
- Types of stimuli detected.
16
Q
[16.1] List the types of microscopic structure classifications of sensory receptors.
A
- Free nerve endings.
- Encapsulated nerve endings.
- Separate cells.
17
Q
[16.1] Describe free nerve endings.
A
Dendrites that lack structural specializations and do not reside in a capsule.
18
Q
[16.1] List the types of stimuli that activate free nerve endings.
A
Pain, temperature, tickle, itch, and some touch.
19
Q
[16.1] Describe encapsulated nerve endings.
A
Dendrites enclosed in a connective tissue capsule distinctive and enhancing sensitivity to the stimuli associated to the receptor.
20
Q
[16.1] Describe separate cells.
A
Sensory receptors that that synapse with sensory neurons for special senses.
21
Q
[16.1] What is a receptor potential?
A
A graded potential generated by a sensory receptor in response to a stimuli.
22
Q
[16.1] How do free nerve endings and encapsulated nerve endings send impulses?
A
An action potential is generated in the receptor itself and propagates along the axon into the CNS.
23
Q
[16.1] How do separate cells send impulses?
A
Separate cells reach threshold and release neurotransmitters through exocytosis of synaptic vesicles, producing a postsynaptic potential in the sensory neuron paired with it. This postsynaptic potential travels along the sensory neuron into the CNS.
24
Q
[16.1] List the types of classifications within the “location of receptors/origin of stimuli” characteristic.
A
- Exteroceptors.
- Interoceptors.
- Proprioceptors.
25
[16.1] Describe exteroceptors.
Sensory receptors located at or near the external surface of the body, and sensitive to stimuli originating outside the body.
26
[16.1] Describe interoceptors.
Sensory receptors within the body monitoring blood vessels, organs, muscles, and the nervous system.
27
[16.1] Describe proprioceptors.
Sensory receptors located in muscles, tendons, joints, and the inner ear providing information of body position and movement.
28
[16.1] List the types of classifications within the "type of stimulus detected" characteristic.
1. Mechanoreceptors.
2. Thermoreceptors.
3. Nociceptors.
4. Photoreceptors.
5. Chemoreceptors.
6. Osmoreceptors.
29
[16.1] Describe the characteristic of adaptation within sensory receptors.
The characteristic of decreasing the amplitude of a receptor potential during a maintained, constant stimulus.
30
[16.1] Describe "rapidly adapting receptors".
Sensory receptors that adapt quickly, specialized for detecting changes of a stimulus.
31
[16.1] Describe "slowly adapting receptors".
Sensory receptors that adapt slowly and trigger impulses as long as a stimulus is present.
32
[16.2] Where are the sensory receptors of somatic sensations typically found?
1. Skin / subcutaneous layer.
2. Mucous membranes of mouth, vagina, and anus.
3. Skeletal muscles, tendons, and joints.
33
[16.2] What are cutaneous sensations?
Somatic sensations stemming from stimulation of skin / subcutaneous layer.
34
[16.2] Which sensations are tactile sensations?
Touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle.
35
[16.2] Describe the sensory receptors associated with touch, pressure, and vibration.
Encapsulated mechanoreceptors attached to A-fibers.
36
[16.2] Describe the sensory receptors associated with tickle and itch sensation.
Free nerve endings attached to C-fibers.
37
[16.2] What are the types of rapidly adapting and slowly adapting touch receptors?
1. [Rapid] Corpuscles of touch.
2. [Rapid] Hair root plexuses.
3. [Slow] Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors.
4. [Slow] Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors.
38
[16.2] Describe corpuscles of touch.
Rapidly adapting encapsulated receptors responding to touch and low frequency vibrations located in dermal papillae of hairless skin.
39
[16.2] Describe hair root plexuses.
Rapidly adapting free nerve ending receptors responding to touch found in hairy skin
40
[16.2] Describe type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors.
Saucer-shaped flattened free nerve endings in contact with tactile epithelial cells of the stratum basale responding to continuous touch.
41
[16.2] Describe type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors.
Elongated encapsulated receptors highly sensitive to stretching located in dermis, subQ layer, and other tissues.
42
[16.2] Describe the sensation of pressure and which receptors respond to it.
A sustained sensation felt over a large area due to deep deformation of the skin and subcutaneous layer. Sensed by type I and II mechanoreceptors.
43
[16.2] How is the sensation of vibration created?
Rapidly repetitive sensory signals from tactile receptors - lamellated corpuscles and corpuscles of touch.
44
[16.2] Describe lamellated corpuscles.
Rapidly adapting free nerve endings surrounded by multilayers connective tissue capsule that respond to high frequency vibrations.
45
[16.2] Describe the itch sensation.
Stimulation of free nerve endings by specific chemicals, alleviated by scratching due to blocking transmission of itch with a different pathway.
46
[16.2] Describe the tickle sensation.
Stimulation of free nerve endings arising from touch from an outside source.
47
[16.2] Describe thermoreceptors.
Free nerve endings with receptive fields of 1mm detecting coldness and warmth. Rapidly adapting but will generate impulses at lower frequency for prolonged stimulus.
48
[16.2] Describe cold receptors.
Rapidly adapting free nerve endings connecting to A fibers and C fibers located in stratum basale of epidermis.
49
[16.2] Describe warm receptors.
Rapidly adapting free nerve endings attached to C fibers.
50
[16.2] Describe nociceptors.
Free nerve endings in every tissue sensitive to pain responding to intense thermal, mechanical, or chemical stimuli.
51
[16.2] What are the types of pain?
Fast and slow.
52
[16.2] Describe fast pain.
Rapid perception (under 0.1s) of pain after stimulus occurring as it propagates along A fibers. Typically decribed as skin or pricking.
53
[16.2] Describe slow pain.
Slow perception (over 1s) of pain after stimulus as it propagates along C fibers. Described as excruciating, burning, aching, or throbbing.
54
[16.2] Describe superficial somatic pain.
Stimulation of pain receptors in the skin.
55
[16.2] Describe deep somatic pain.
Stimulation of pain receptors in muscles, joints, tendons, and fascia.
56
[16.2] Describe visceral pain.
Stimulation of nociceptors in visceral organ.
57
[16.2] What is localization of pain?
The ability of the stimulus triggering pain to be precisely located. High localization in fast pain, moderately localized in somatic slow pain.
58
[16.2] What is referred pain.
Visceral pain felt in or just deep to skin overlying the stimulated organ. Generally the area with referred pain and the stimulated organ are innervated by the same section of spinal cord.
59
[16.2] What is analgesia?
Pain relief.
60
[16.2] What are proprioceptive sensations?
Sensations providing information about our body parts and theirs locations/movements.
61
[16.2] What is kinesthesia?
The perception of body movements.
62
[16.2] What are proprioceptors?
Sensory receptors that generate proprioceptive impulses, found within muscles, tendons, and hair cells of the inner ear.
63
[16.2] What is weight discrimination related to proprioceptors?
The ability to assess the weight of an object.
64
[16.2] What is the function of muscle spindles?
Monitoring changes in the length of skeletal muscles and triggering stretch reflexes.
65
[16.2] What is muscle tone?
The small degree of contraction present in muscles at rest.
66
[16.2] What are muscle spindles?
Proprioceptors monitoring the length of muscles and participating in stretch reflexes.
67
[16.2] Describe the composition of muscle spindles.
Several slow-adapting nerve endings wrapping around 3-10 intrafusal fibers. This structure is encapsulated by connective tissue and anchors to the epimysium.
68
[16.2] What are intrafusal fibers?
Specialized muscle fibers, usually bound together in groups of 3-10 by muscle spindles.
69
[16.2] What are gamma motor neurons?
Motor neurons terminating near both ends of intrafusal fibers adjusting the tension in a muscle spindle to changes in length of muscle. This keeps intrafusal fibers taught to maintain sensitivity to stretching.
70
[16.2] What are extrafusal muscle fibers?
Ordinary skeletal muscle fibers supplied by alpha motor neurons.
71
[16.2] What are alpha motor neurons?
Large-diameter A fibers innervating extrafusal muscle fibers.
72
[16.2] What are tendon organs?
Slowly adapting receptors located at the junction of a tendon and muscle.
73
[16.2] What are the functions of tendon organs?
Initiate tendon reflexes to protect tendons and muscles due to excessive tension.
74
[16.2] Describe the layout of a tendon organ.
A thin capsule of connective tissue that encloses tendon fascicles, and penetrated by a sensory nerve ending entwining the tendon fascicle.
75
[16.2] What are the types of sensory receptors that act as joint kinesthetic receptors?
Free nerve ending and type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors within capsules of joints responding to pressure.
Lamellated corpuscles outside articular capsules responding to acceleration and deceleration.
76
[16.3] Define somatic sensory pathways?
Pathways relaying information from somatic sensory receptors to primary somatosensory areas in the parietal lobe and cerebellum.
77
[16.3] List the components of a somatic sensory pathway.
1. First-order neurons.
2. Second-order neurons.
3. Third-order neurons.
78
[16.3] Describe first-order neurons.
Sensory neurons of a somatosensory pathway conducting impulses from somatic sensory receptors into the brainstem of spinal cord.
79
[16.3] Describe second-order neurons.
Neural soma in brainstem or spinal cord with axons extending to thalamus. Decussate before ascending to thalamus
80
[16.3] Describe third-order neurons.
Neural soma in the thalamus with axons extending into the primary somatosensory area on the same side.
81
[16.3] Describe a relay station as it relates to the CNS.
A region within the CNS where neurons synapse with other sensory or motor pathways.
82
[16.3] What is the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway?
A pathway formed by the posterior column pathway of the spinal cord and the medial lemniscus tract of the brainstem.
83
[16.3] List the nerve impulses carried in the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway.
Touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception from limbs, trunk, neck, and posterior head.
84
[16.3] Describe the role of first-order neurons in the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway.
Neurons extend from sensory receptors to the medulla oblongata ipsilaterally. Soma found in posterior root ganglia of spinal nerves.
85
[16.3] What are the posterior columns.
Two white matter tracts ascending the spinal column - the gracile fasciculus and cuneate fasciculus.
86
[16.3] What is the medial lemniscus?
A thin ribbon-like projection tract that extends from the medulla to ventral posterior nucleus of thalamus.
87
[16.3] What is the anterolateral (spinothalamic) pathway?
An ascending pathway of neurons from the spinal cord to the thalamus, composed of the anterior spinothalamic tract, lateral spinothalamic tract, the spinoreticular tract, and spinotectal tract.
88
[16.3] What sensations are carried in the spinothalamic tract?
Pain, temperature, itch, and tickle from limbs, trunk, neck, and posterior head.
89
[16.3] How are the first-, second-, and third-order neurons arranged in the spinothalamic pathway?
First order neurons extend from sensory receptors to the posterior root where their soma lies.
Second-order neurons synapse with first-order in the posterior grey horns, decussate, and extend to the thalamus.
Third-order neurons synapse with second-order in the thalamus and extend their axons into the primary somatosensory area ipsilaterally.
90
[16.3] What is the trigeminothalamic pathway?
A sensory pathway extending from somatic sensory receptors in face and nasal+oral cavity to the primary somatosensory area via the thalamus.
91
[16.3] What sensations is the trigeminothalamic *pathway* responsible for?
Somatic sensations of the face, and the nasal and oral cavity.
92
[16.3] Where does the trigeminothalamic *tract* begin?
In the medulla and pons where first-order neurons synapse with second order neurons.
93
[16.3] Describe the primary somatosensory area.
A region of the brain occupying the postcentral gyri of parietal lobes responsible for receiving sensory input from different parts of the body.
94
[16.3] What is the sensory homunculus?
A distorted somatic sensory map of the body corresponding regions of the body to locations within the primary somatosensory area, with size of the location also corresponding to sensory receptors of body part.
95
[16.3] What are the two *tracts* of the spinal cord?
Anterior spinocerebellar tract and posterior spinocerebellar tract.
96
[16.3] What information is primarily relayed along the anterior/posterior spinocerebellar tracts?
Proprioceptive information relating to posture, balance, and coordination.
97
[16.4] What are lower motor neurons?
Motor neurons extending from the brainstem and spinal cord to innervate skeletal muscle.
98
[16.4] List the neurons that input to lower motor neurons (LMN).
Local circuit neurons, upper motor neurons.
99
[16.4] Describe the flow of nerve impulses through local circuit neurons.
Local circuit neurons receive input from sensory receptors and upper motor neurons. Input to lower motor neurons.
100
[16.4] What are upper motor neurons (UMNs)?
An interneuron within motor processing centers of the upper CNS and brainstem that innervate local circuits and LMNs.
101
[16.4] Describe how upper motor neurons input to lower motor neurons (LMNs).
Upper motor neurons can synapse with local circuit neurons and send signals to LMNs, or synapse with LMNs directly.
102
[16.4] What are basal nuclei neurons?
Neurons found within the basal ganglia.
103
[16.4] Describe the function of basal nuclei neurons.
Basal nuclei neurons synapse with UMNs and terminate/suppress unwanted movements and establish muscle tone. Indirectly regulate lower motor neurons.
104
[16.4] What are cerebellar neurons?
Neurons of the cerebellum synapsing with UMNs.
105
[16.4] What is the function of cerebellar neurons?
Reduces error in movement by regulate upper motor neurons based on discrepancies of intended vs actual movements.
106
[16.4] Describe the premotor area.
A region of the frontal lobe anterior to the primary motor area. Receives information for moving a part of the body from the thalamus and develops a motor plan for muscle contraction.
107
[16.4] Describe the primary motor area.
The primary control region for execution of voluntary movements.
108
[16.4] What is the motor homonculus?
A distorted map of the body with muscles of the corresponding to regions of the primary motor area based on involvement of the muscle in skilled or complex movement.
109
[16.4] What is a direct motor pathway?
A motor pathway where lower motor neurons are stimulated via axons extending directly from the cerebral cortex.
110
[16.4] What is an indirect motor pathway?
A motor pathway where lower motor neurons are stimulated via axons originating in the brainstem.
111
[16.4] What are pyramidal pathways?
Direct motor pathways. Named as axons descend from pyramidal cells of the premotor and primary motor area.
112
[16.4] What are pyramidal cells?
Upper motor neurons with a pyramid-shaped body.
113
[16.4] Name the the direct motor pathways descending from the cerebral cortex.
Corticospinal and corticobulbar.
114
[16.4] What effectors do corticospinal pathways innervate??
Skeletal muscles of the trunk and limbs.
115
[16.4] Describe the anatomy of corticospinal pathways.
Upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex descend through the internal capsule and cerebral peduncle of midbrain into the medulla oblongata. Here, axon bundles form ventral bulges known as pyramids. Some axons then decussate, and all descend to the spinal cord, synapsing with a lower motor neurons.
116
[16.4] What are the different corticospinal tracts?
Lateral corticospinal tract and anterior corticospinal tract.
117
[16.4] Describe the lateral corticospinal tract.
Corticospinal axons that decussate in the medulla and form the lateral white column of the spinal cord. Synapse with lower motor neurons that exit the anterior roots of spinal nerves. Innervate distal muscle of limbs.
118
[16.4] Describe the anterior corticospinal tract.
Corticospinal axons that do not decussate in the medulla or anterior white column. Some axons decussate through the anterior white commissure, and all synapse with lower motor neurons in anterior grey horn, exiting through anterior roots. Control movement of proximal limbs and trunk.
119
[16.4] What is the corticobulbar pathway?
A neural pathway innervating controlling skeletal muscles of the head.
120
[16.4] Describe the anatomy of the corticobulbar pathway.
Upper motor neurons originating in the cerebral cortex descend along the corticospinal tracts. After passing through the cerebral peduncle of the midbrain, they terminate at synapses with nine pairs of the cranial nerves (the mixed & motor).
121
[16.4] What are the major motor centers of the brainstem that regulate body movements?
The vestibular nuclei, the reticular formation, the superior colliculus, and the red nucleus.
122
[16.4] What are extrapyramidal pathways?
Brainstem motor centers that include all somatic motor tracts outside the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts.
123
[16.4] What are the major descending tracts of the spinal cord stemming from the brainstem?
Rubrospinal, tectospinal, vestibulospinal, lateral reticulospinal, and medial reticulospinal.
124
[16.4] What is the vestibular nuclei?
A nuclei within the medulla / pons controlling postural reflexes.
125
[16.4] What are postural reflexes and where does the sensory information stem from?
Postural reflexes keep the body upright and balanced, and are sourced from: visual information, vestibular apparatus of the inner ear, and proprioceptors in joints and muscles.
126
[16.4] What is the vestibulospinal tract?
Axons from the vestibular nuclei conveying impulses to skeletal muscles of the trunk and proximal limbs.
127
[16.4] What is the reticular formation?
A major integration and relay center formed by nuclei in the brainstem.
128
[16.4] What is the function of the reticular formation?
Receives input from multiple sensory receptors and other CNS nuclei and generates action potentials along the medial and lateral reticulospinal tract.
129
[16.4] What is the medial reticulospinal tract?
A projection tract extending from the reticular formation in the pons to skeletal muscle of the trunk and proximal limbs.
130
[16.4] What is the function of the medial reticulospinal tract?
Sends excitatory signals to regulate muscle tone in trunk and proximal limb skeletal muscles during ongoing movements. Works in tandem with lateral reticulospinal tract.
131
[16.4] What is the lateral reticulospinal tract?
A projection tract extending from the reticular formation in the medulla to skeletal muscle of the trunk and proximal limbs.Provides inhibitory signals.
132
[16.4] What is the function of the lateral reticulospinal tract?
Sends inhibitory signals regulating muscle tone in skeletal muscle of the trunk and proximal limbs during ongoing movements. Works in tandem with medial reticulospinal tract.
133
[16.4] What is the superior colliculus?
A nuclei within the midbrain.
134
[16.4] What is the function of the superior colliculus nucleus?
Receives visual and auditory input. During unexpected stimuli, generates action potentials along tectospinal tract to respond to unexpected stimuli. Responsible for saccades.
135
[16.4] What is the tectospinal tract?
A projection tract stemming from the superior colliculus and innervating muscles in the head and trunk
136
[16.4] What is saccades?
Small, rapid, jerking movements of the eyes that occur as a person shifts focus to another point in the visual field.
137
[16.4] What is the red nucleus?
A nuclei found in the midbrain.
138
[16.4] What is the function of the red nucleus?
Receives input from cerebral cortex and cerebellum and generates action potentials along the rubrospinal tract. Responsible for fine, precise, voluntary movements of distal upper limbs.
139
[16.4] What is the rubrospinal tract?
A projection tract stemming from the red nucleus and innervating skeletal muscles of distal, upper limbs.
140
[16.4] List the functions of basal nuclei.
1. Initiation of movement.
2. Suppression of unwanted movements.
3. Regulation of muscle tone.
4. Regulation of nonmotor processes.
141
[16.4] List the functions of the cerebellum.
1. Monitoring intentions of movements.
2. Monitoring actual movements.
3. Comparing command signals with sensory information.
4. Sending out corrective feedback.
142
[16.4] Describe the "monitoring intentions for movement" function of the cerebellum.
Cerebellum receives impulses from motor cortex and basal nuclei via the pontine nuclei to as they travel to the skeletal muscle.
143
[16.4] Describe the "monitoring actual movement" function of the cerebellum.
The cerebellum receives sensory input from proprioceptors in joints, muscles, and ears about what has occurred.
144
[16.4] Describe the "comparing command signals with sensory information" function of the cerebellum.
Cerebellum compares the impulses from the motor cortex/basal nuclei and the proprioceptors.
145
[16.4] Describe the "sending out corrective feedback" function of the cerebellum.
The cerebellum sends feedback to upper motor neurons in brainstem motor centers if a discrepancy is present, correcting and smoothing motion.
146
[16.5] What is integration?
The processing of sensory information by analyzing, storing, and forming decisions based on the information.
147
[16.5] What are integrative functions?
Cerebral activities that participate in integration, such as wakefulness & sleep, learning, memory, and language.
148
[16.5] What is the circadian rhythm?
A 24-hour cycle established by the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus.
149
[16.5] What is the reticular activating system?
A portion of the reticular formation involved in arousal and increasing cortical activity.
150
[16.5] What is arousal?
Awakening from sleep.
151
[16.5] What is consciousness?
The state of wakefulness where an organism can respond to stimuli.
152
[16.5] What is sleep?
A state of altered consciousness, or partial unconsciousness.
153
[16.5] What is non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep?
A series of four gradually merged stages of sleep.
154
[16.5] List the stages of non-rapid eye movement sleep and describe them.
Stage 1: Transition between wakefulness and sleep lasting 1-7 minutes.
Stage 2: Light sleep, easy arousal with some experience of fragmented dreams, from about 7 minutes to 20 minutes.
Stage 3: Moderate deep sleep with physiological changes (BP, temp). Begins after 20 minutes,
Stage 4: Deep sleep, brain activity and metabolism decreases and reflexes/muscle tone remain intact. Difficult to wake.
155
[16.5] What is rapid eye movement sleep?
Sleep after stage 4 NREM sleep in which eyes move rapidly back and forth where brain activity and physiological signs increase but muscle tone decreases.
156
[16.5] What are non-rapid eye movement sleep centers?
Nuclei in the hypothalamus and basal forebrain inducing NREM sleep.
157
[16.5] What are the REM sleep centers?
Nuclei in the pons and midbrain inducing REM sleep.
158
[16.5] What is a coma?
A state of unconsciousness where an individual has little to no response to stimuli.
159
[16.5] What is a persistent vegetable state?
A state of wake/sleep cycles where an individual does not have awareness of surroundings.
160
[16.5] What is learning?
The ability to acquire new information or skills.
161
[16.5] What is associative learning?
Learning involving a connection being made between two stimuli.
162
[16.5] What is non-associative learning?
Learning when repeat exposure to a stimuli causes a change in behaviour.
163
[16.5] What are the types of non-associative learning?
Habituation and sensitization.
164
[16.5] What is habituation?
Non-associative learning in which repeated exposure to an irrelevant stimuli causes decreased response.
165
[16.5] What is sensitization?
Non-associative learning in which repeated exposure to a noxious stimuli causes increased response.
166
[16.5] What is memory?
The process of storing retrieving information acquired through learning.
167
[16.5] What are the two types of memory?
Declarative and procedural.
168
[16.5] What is declarative memory?
Memory of experiences that can be verbalized.
169
[16.5] What is procedural memory?
Memory of motor skills, rules, and procedures.
170
[16.5] What is short-term memory?
Temporary ability to recall information within seconds or minutes.
171
[16.5] What is long-term memory?
Ability to recall information from days to years.
172
[16.5] What is memory consolidation?
The process of transforming short-term memories to long-term memories.
173
[16.5] What is plasticity?
The capability for change associated with the ability to learn.
174
[16.5] What is long-term potentiation?
A phenomenon.
175
[16.5] What is language?
A system of vocal sounds and written symbols conveying information.
176
[16.5] What are the two language areas?
Wernicke's area and Broca's area.
