Class and the Stratification of Society (Part 2 Ch 7)

Question 1

Status

Answer 1

Status is a social or professional position, condition, or standing to which varying degrees of responsibility, privilege, and esteem are attached.

Two types of status are “achieved” and “ascribed.”

Question 2

Achieved status

Answer 2

Achieved status is earned status. The winner of the race is crowned best runner.

Question 3

Ascribed status

Answer 3

Ascribed status is status that is assigned by authority.

Ascribed status can be flawed or incorrect: for example, assigning men an inherent, higher status than women based upon gender bias.

• Examples of ascribed status include nationality, race, and gender.

Question 4

Master status

Answer 4

Master status is an individual’s primary identifying status.

Master status influences an individual’s relationships, social interactions, and role expectations, and it overshadows all other individual identities.

Master status is the prevailing status that is held at a given point or situation in an individual’s life, and it may change over time and circumstance; it tends to be ascribed.

Question 5

social class

Answer 5

Social class refers to one’s place in the social hierarchy based on income, wealth, education, and social influence, as opposed to birthplace, ethnicity, race, or gender.

Individuals usually inherit membership in the social class of their parents. For example, in a monarchy, children of royalty automatically become part of the aristocracy. Similarly, children of middle-class parents inherit membership in the middle class because they occupy a similar position in society.

Although children generally start out as members of the same social class as their parents, social class membership is not necessarily permanent or fixed. Individuals who increase their wealth or power may become members of a higher social class. Conversely, those who lose money or influence without regaining it may drop to a lower social class.

This potential for movement distinguishes a class system from a caste society, in which individuals remain forever in the caste into which they were born.

Question 6

Socioeconomic status

Answer 6

Socioeconomic status is colloquially understood to have the same meaning as the term social class. Like social class, socioeconomic status is a measure of an individual’s income, wealth, education, and social position and/or occupation. However, some scholars will distinguish between social class and socioeconomic status.

• To these scholars, social class refers primarily to one’s inherited social status and cannot be easily changed, while socioeconomic status refers to one’s current social and economic conditions and is therefore more malleable.

Question 7

Social reproduction

Answer 7

Social reproduction is the process by which socioeconomic status is passed down.

Unequal social and economic relations may be reproduced from generation to generation.

Powerful groups have a vested interest in maintaining their wealth and dominance, while subordinate groups lack the power or resources to alter the broader social structures.

Social reproduction applies to a variety of social categories and classifications through which inequality is perpetuated: gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and other factors all play a role in social reproduction.

Question 8

Intersectionality

Answer 8

Intersectionality is the idea that experiences tied to socioeconomic status, especially experiences of oppression and discrimination, overlap with and can reinforce experiences based upon other social, cultural, or biological categories, such as race, ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation.

Proponents of intersectionality essentially argue that when it comes to discrimination and oppression, “the whole is greater is than the sum of its parts.”

For an individual with multiple disadvantaged aspects to their social identity, the combined effect of the various discriminations is more complex and powerful than each aspect considered individually.

• For example, the experiences of a black woman cannot be captured by separately considering the experience of being black and the experience of being a woman; the experience of those two things together gives rise to extra effects not captured by a consideration of the categories separately.

Question 9

Social Stratification

Answer 9

Social stratification refers to inequality in the social hierarchy based on class and socioeconomic status that perpetuates the unequal distribution of wealth and power.

The term “social stratification” often serves as a buzzword for conflict theory.

Conflict theorists hold that stratification sets the stage for class conflict.

• Social stratification has implications at all levels of society, from the self-concept of various individuals to the largest macrosociological organizations.
• At the level of the individual, some people may experience themselves as inferior in society by recognizing their low (and degraded) place in society’s hierarchy.
• At larger, macro-social levels, powerful institutions such as schools and corporations may be structured to reward and advance those with the most power and resources.

Question 10

Class consciousness

Answer 10

Class consciousness can mean identifying with others who are in the same income range and therefore identifying oneself as belonging to the working class, middle class, or upper class.

An individual’s class consciousness may be further refined by socioeconomic features, such as education, ethnicity, or religion.

In particular, class consciousness is marked by a recognition of different groups’ relationships to the means of production (e.g., agricultural land, factories, etc.).

Question 11

Class consciousness 2

Answer 11

Class consciousness implies an awareness of these relationships and a desire to prevent the perpetuation of social inequality.

Conflicts arise because of this different access to resources and the unequal social structures that result.

• For example, in a capitalist society, typically one social class owns the factories but another class does the actual work in those factories. This conflict can come to the fore, for instance, during factory strikes when owners and workers are at odds over hourly wages, health care benefits, working conditions, etc.

Question 12

False Consciousness

Answer 12

False consciousness refers to the means by which dominant social groups may mislead or manipulate subordinate groups so that they fail to understand the true relationship of the different classes in society, therefore rendering them unable to advocate for what is in their best interests, especially their best economic and social interests.

• False consciousness implies that individuals incorrectly believe that their interests are allied with a social class other than their own and therefore participate in perpetuation of their own oppression or domination.

-For example, working class white men may not focus on what they have in common with working class black men or women; they may believe that they benefit if lower wages are paid to these other groups for comparable work.

They may even believe that they are entitled to higher wages and benefits because they are white and male.

These beliefs prevent them from recognizing what could be gained by uniting with others in the same socioeconomic group and working together; similarly, they may fail to see that another class (say, the factory owners) benefits from these divisions.

Question 13

prestige, privilege, and power

Answer 13

Social stratification will also affect social organization, because members of different classes and socioeconomic statuses will have different access to prestige, privilege, and power.

Question 14

Power

Answer 14

Power refers to the ability of individuals and institutions to influence the outcome of decisions that affect families, businesses, and political parties.

Question 15

Prestige

Answer 15

Prestige points to the elevated position or reputation of an individual or group that uses its special status to influence socioeconomic decisions.

Question 16

Privilege

Answer 16

Privilege points to special and usually favorable rights, ranks, or offices.

• Individuals and groups with privilege exercise it not only over various socioeconomic groups such as families and classes but also over racial, religious, and political entities.

Question 17

Cultural capital

Answer 17

Cultural capital refers to an individual’s nonmonetary assets that are considered rare and desirable in particular society. Academic credentials, mastery of language, mastery of social norms and rituals, and knowledge or possession of esoteric scientific and artistic materials or abilities are all examples of cultural capital.

Access to cultural capital is a major factor in the ability of an individual to participate in and succeed in a society. For example, an education can provide the means necessary to satisfy job and career requirements.

Like financial capital, cultural capital is not equally available or equally distributed.

Also like financial capital, cultural capital can be a means of discrimination and oppression; subordinate groups are not given the same access to all sources of cultural capital and are thereby limited in their ability to improve their status.

Limited cultural capital has far-reaching implications: it typically limits earning power, which in turn restricts social choices. (For example, reduced income limits one’s ability to move to a better, safer neighborhood with good schools where more cultural capital may be gained.)

Question 18

social capital

Answer 18

Social capital refers to nonmonetary assets based on membership in a particular social group or network.

Social capital is distinct from cultural capital: social capital reflects the idea that membership in particular social groups has value because such membership allows individuals to draw upon the resources or support of the group. Cultural capital instead refers to the ability to draw upon various cultural referents (e.g., academic degrees, esoteric knowledge, etc.).

An individual with greater social capital would be able to better mobilize social relationships and resources to accomplish socioeconomic goals.

Like cultural capital, social capital is not distributed equally and can be used to perpetuate inequality.

Question 19

Socioeconomic gradient in health

Answer 19

Socioeconomic gradient in health: socioeconomic status influences the health of individuals, families, and other groups, with poorer and disadvantaged groups having significantly worse health outcomes than privileged groups.

There are a number of potential reasons for this gradient:

1. Access to health care: the wealthy can afford better and more comprehensive care and so will be healthier.
2. Environmental exposure: poor people do not have resources to change their surroundings if their environment is undesirable, and therefore are more likely to live in areas with pollution or violence.
3. Stress of poverty: the poor have less control over their lives and employment and have fewer resources to fall back upon during difficult times.

Question 20

social mobility

Answer 20

Although social status can be difficult to change, it is not permanently fixed: social mobility refers to the movement of individuals between social strata.

Social mobility may be intragenerational (taking place over the course of a person’s life) or intergenerational(taking place from one generation to the next).

Question 21

Horizontal mobility

Answer 21

Horizontal mobility refers to movement between groups of similar income, wealth, or education.

LIKE COMPARISONS if same income but lose job and get welfare pay check, have moved horizontally*

Question 22

Vertical mobility

Answer 22

Vertical mobility refers to upward and downward changes between social classes.

Question 23

Meritocracy

Answer 23

=a group or society in which greater status and privilege is acquired based on ability and talent rather than on inherited status and privilege.

• The concept of meritocracy (a term coined by sociologist Michael Young) assumes all individuals have equal access to opportunities.
• In a meritocracy, there would be greater social mobility because individuals would be rewarded appropriately for their achievements and abilities.
• Although U.S. society espouses meritocratic ideals (i.e., the “American Dream”), most research shows that on average, moving between social classes is difficult and relatively rare.

Question 24

The concept of social class can be expanded to….

Answer 24

The concept of social class can be expanded to refer not just to stratification within a particular society, but also to global inequalities and global stratification between nations.

Different nations and societies have different access to resources due to both geography and history.

Some nations are able to exploit others for their own gain (e.g., colonialism). (See also world-systems theory; Chapter 10: Inequality and Social Change; Globalization.)

Question 25

absolute poverty

Answer 25

Absolute poverty is when an individual or group is living with a level of material resources below the level necessary for basic subsistence.

• The individual or group lacks the resources needed to secure the basic necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clean water.

Question 26

Poverty

Answer 26

Poverty refers to the scarcity of basic material possessions.

Question 27

Relative poverty

Answer 27

Relative poverty considers poverty to be dependent on the social context, and therefore relates the condition of individuals or groups to other individuals or groups; it measures relative deprivation rather than absolute deprivation.

Relative poverty is typically measured by considering the proportion of the population that earns less than a certain percentage of the median income for that society.

Generally, relative poverty is a better measure of poverty in wealthy, developed nations because relatively few members of those societies can be considered to be living in absolute poverty.

Relative poverty does not necessarily indicate destitution but rather points to material differences in a particular society.

** like comparisons for median income** poverty in US

Question 28

Situational poverty

Answer 28

Situational poverty refers to poverty brought about by a sudden, unexpected event (a crisis or loss such as disease, accidents, natural disasters, family deaths, employment layoffs, etc.).

Question 29

Generational poverty

Answer 29

Generational poverty refers to a situation in which at least two generations of a family have been born into poverty.

Question 30

Social exclusion

Answer 30

Social exclusion refers to systematic segregation and isolation from mainstream society of individuals, groups, or communities.

Such individuals are unable to take advantage of the basic resources of society.

Alienation and disenfranchisement are social conditions that result from such exclusion.

Marx defines “alienation” as an individual’s separation from a sense of being or belonging as a result of living in a stratified society.

Disenfranchisement is the state of losing or being denied rights and/or privileges.

Social exclusion often contributes to lower living standards and subsequent health problems.