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biology > Cloning and Biotechnology > Flashcards

Cloning and Biotechnology Flashcards

1
Q

Clones Definition

A

GENETICALLY identical copies

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2
Q

what is vegetative propagation

A

production of plant clones from non reproductive cells

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3
Q

what are rhizomes

A

stem structures that grow horizontally UNDERGROUND away from the parent plant e.g bamboo

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4
Q

what are runners

A

stem structures that grow horizontally ABOVE GROUND e.g strawberries

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5
Q

what are tubers

A

large underground plant structures that act as a food store for the plant e.g potatoes

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6
Q

what are bulbs

A

underground food stores where bulbs can develop from the og plant to form new individual plants e.g onions

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7
Q

How to take plant cuttings as an example of a simple cloning technique

A

From Stem: using a scalpel take a cutting 5-10cm from end of a stem of a parent plant, remove leaves at lower end of the cutting leaving one at the tip, dip the lower end into rooting powder with growth hormones, place this cutting in a pot with suitable growth medium, provide warmth using a propagator

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8
Q

what is tissue culture

A

growing new tissues/organs/plants from certain tissues cut from parent plants

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9
Q

what is micropropagation

A

growing large numbers of plants from meristem tissues from parent plant (mass tissue culture baso)

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10
Q

process of tissue culture/ micropropagation

A

cut a developing stem/ root (explant) as they have stem cells. sterilise this explant to kill any microorganisms. place CELLS in a culture containing growth hormones , glucose amino acids. cells will divide to form a small plant, move to soil. plants are identical to parents

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11
Q

when is micropropagation used

A
  • Desirable plant doesn’t produce many seeds
  • rare plants
  • GM plants
  • doesn’t respond well to natural cloning
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12
Q

Advantages of micropropagation

A
  • infertile plants can be grown
  • plants can be grown in any season
  • desirable characteristics always passed on
  • quicker growth than seeds
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13
Q

Disadvantages of micropropagation

A
  • unfavourable characteristics always passed on
  • susceptible to disease due to lack of genetic variation
  • high production cost- skilled workers + energy
  • contamination can be disastrous
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14
Q

natural clones in invertebrates:

A

starfish regenerating fragments

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15
Q

natural clones in vertebrates

A

MZ twins

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16
Q

Process of artificial embryo twinning

A

egg is extracted from female animal and fertilised in a Petri dish- fertilised egg left to divide Into an embryo, cells from this are then put into a separate Petri dish and left to divide into an embryo, these embryos are implanted into more female animals which act as surrogates, embryos develop and OFFSPRING ARE GENETICALLY IDENTICAL TO EACH-OTHER.

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17
Q

process of somatic cell nuclear transfer

A

Somatic cell extracted from target animal, the nucleus is extracted and kept. from another animal an egg cell is taken and enucleated (nucleus removed). the nucleus from animal 1 is inserted into animal 2s egg cell and fused and stimulated to divide using electrofusion. this forms an embryo- implanted into surrogate mother, offspring is identical to animal 1

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18
Q

arguments for artificial cloning in animals

A
  • desirable characteristics always passed on
  • infertile animals can reproduce
  • breeding season doesn’t matter
  • save endangered species
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19
Q

arguments against artificial cloning in animals

A
  • ethics, embryos destroyed in process
  • undesirable characteristics always passed on
  • no genetic variation
  • difficult to do and time consuming
  • cloned offspring don’t live as long as natural ones
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20
Q

what is biotechnology

A

industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs, other products

21
Q

what living organisms are used in biotech and why

A

fungi+ bacteria

  • ideal growth conditions- easy to grow
  • short life cycle- grow rapidly, products can be made quickly
  • grown using inexpensive materials
  • grown any time of the year
22
Q

process- brewing beer

A

yeast (bacteria) added to grain+ other ingredients, yeast respires anaerobically using glucose from grain producing ethanol (fermentation)

23
Q

process- cheese making

A

cheese production relies on rennet- contains enzyme chymosin- usually extracted from calves stomachs- can now be made using GM bacteria

24
Q

process- yoghurt making

A

lactic acid bacteria clots milk- thickens it

25
Q

process- penicillin production

A

fungi in stress in industrial fermenter produce antibiotic penicillin

26
Q

process- insulin production

A

GM bacteria which have gene for human insulin production grown in industrial fermenter

27
Q

process- bioremediation

A

removes pollutants from contaminated sites eg. cleaning oil spills

28
Q

advantages of using microorganisms for food for human consumption

A
  • organisms used to make single cell protein can be grown using waste products- way of getting rid of waste products
  • microorganisms can be grown quickly, easily, cheaply- production costs are low, grown using waste, less land needed than livestock
  • can be cultured anywhere- just needs right equipment- food source readily provided- tackle malnutrition
  • healthy alternative to human protein
29
Q

disadvantages of using microorganisms for food for human consumption

A
  • care must be taken when culturing to avoid contamination
  • people may not like idea of eating food grown using waste products
  • single celled protein doesn’t have same taste as normal meat
30
Q

batch fermentation

A

microorganisms grown in batches in a fermentation vessel- when grown its removed and a diff batch is made- closed culture

31
Q

continuous fermentation

A

micro-organisms continually grown in a fermentation vessel- non stop. nutrients put in and removed at constant rate

32
Q

conditions and how they maximise yield: pH

A

constantly monitored with ph probe- kept at optimum for enzymes

33
Q

conditions and how they maximise yield: Temperature

A

kept constant by water jacket that surrounds the vessel- kept optimum for enzymes

34
Q

conditions and how they maximise yield: Access to nutrients

A

paddles constantly circulate fresh nutrient medium, ensures access to all microorganisms

35
Q

conditions and how they maximise yield: Volume of o2

A

sterile air pumped into vessel when needed- for respiration

36
Q

conditions and how they maximise yield: vessel kept sterile

A

superheated steam sterilises vessel after every use- kills any unwanted organisms

37
Q

name and state what happens in the 4 sections of the standard growth curve of microorganisms in closed cultures

A

1) Lag phase- growth is slow microorganisms are getting adjusted to their new environment
2) Log phase- exponential growth- growth is fastest here- microorganisms have adapted and have plenty of space and nutrients
3) Stationary phase- Rate of death of microorganisms = rate of reproduction
4) Death phase- more death than reproduction

38
Q

equation for individuals in a population at log phase

A

N=N0 x 2^n
N0- initial number of cells
n- number of divisions
N-individuals in a population at log phase

39
Q

Immobilised enzymes

A

enzymes attached to insoluble material so they can’t be mixed with the products

40
Q

3 methods to immobilise enzymes

A

1- encapsulate in alginate beads (acts as a semi permeable membrane
2-Trap them in a silica gel matrix
3-covalently bond to collagen/ cellulose fibres

41
Q

in industry how are immobilised enzymes used

A

a substrate solution is run thru a column of immobilised enzymes- active sites still available, the solution flowing out of the column will only contain the desired product.

42
Q

advantages of using immobilised enzymes in the industry

A
  • columns can be washed and reused- enzymes don’t need to keep being bought
  • products + enzymes are separate- no time/ money wasted separating
  • less likely to denature than free enzymes
43
Q

disadvantages of using immobilised enzymes in the industry

A
  • extra equipment required- expensive
  • more expensive to buy than free enzymes
  • rate of enzyme activity can be low due to the substrate not being able to mix with the substrate fully
44
Q

process of conversion of lactose using immobilised enzymes

A

fresh milk passed over immobilised lactase which breaks down lactose into glucose + galactose to produce lactose free milk

45
Q

process of the production of semi synthetic penicillins using immobilised enzymes

A

same antibiotic properties as natural penicillin but are effective against penicillin resistant bacteria. enzyme immobilised penicillin acylase used

46
Q

process of conversion of dextrins to glucose using immobilised enzymes

A

glucose and fructose syrup used in food industry, glucose can be derived from starchy foods using immobilised enzymes. starch to dextrins to glucose by glucoamylase

47
Q

process of conversion of glucose to fructose using immobilised enzymes

A

immobilised glucose isomerase converts glucose to fructose

48
Q

process of production of pure samples of L amino acids using immobilised enzymes

A

amino acids L/D, L is the useful one, aminocyclase separates them. (used for dietary supplements)

biology (12 decks)

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