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Cognition In Clinical Contexts Flashcards

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1
Q

What is cognition?

A

All processes by which sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, recovered and used. E.g- perception, language and memory

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2
Q

What is perception?

A

The ability to extract meaning from sensory input

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3
Q

How does the visual system work?

A

The distal stimulus is an object in the environment which is registered by sensory receptors to form a proximal stimulus (the image created on the retina). The proximal stimulus is transmitted to the primary visual cortex located in the occipital lobe of the brain.

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4
Q

What are illusory contours?

A

The ability to see boundaries/edges even though they are not physically present in the stimulus - This is a rational strategy that help make sense of disorder in everyday life.

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5
Q

What is template matching theory of object recognition?

A

Recognition results from comparing a stimulus to an internal representation stored in memory, each object requires a didferent template for each rotation or slant of an object.

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6
Q

What are the weakness of template matching theory?

A

It cannot account for the complexity of human visual processing, e.g being able to recognise objects when only being able to see a portion of the stimulus as the visual system cannot include templates of every fragment of every object.

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7
Q

What is feature analysis theory of object recognition?

A

Objects composed of a number of characteristics called a distinctive feature which are stored in memory along with the the physical relationships among features. E.g both letters T and L have a vertical and horizontal line (distinctive feature) but also have different physical relationships.

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8
Q

What are the weaknesses of feature analysis theory?

A

Most shapes in the real world are too complex to be able to store all the physical relationships and distinctive features they are composed of.

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9
Q

What is semantic priming?

A

The recognition of a face/object when the name of the objects/individuals is preceded by a semantically similar word. This is a form of covert recognition.

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10
Q

What is the fusiform face area?

A

Part of the brain associated with face recognition in which Kanwisher et al. Used fMRI and found that the right fusiform gyrus ridge responded differently to faces compared to objects.

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11
Q

What is Bruce and Young’s model of face recognition?

A

8 component modular model with different subfunctions processed independently. Pathways for familiar faces vs recognising expressions. Parallel processing dealing with visually derived semantic info such as sex, age, and race.

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12
Q

What is McClelland’s Interactive activation and competition model of face recognition?

A

Parallel distributed networks in which semantic information is pooled with relationships between info is represented as a connection. Connections within a pool are mutually inhibitory, connections between pools are mutually facilitatory. Person identity nodes can be partially activated and semantic priming facilitate node activity to spread across modalities.

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13
Q

What are face selective neurons?

A

Located in the superior temporal sulcus and the inferior temporal cortex. They form gnostic units which are selective to complex stimuli. Outputs are combined to form detectors of higher order features (colours and shapes are combined to form faces)

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14
Q

What is agnosia?

A

The impairment of visual object recognition in people who possess sufficiently preserved visual fields.

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15
Q

What is apperceptive agnosia? What are the behavioural symptoms?

A

An inability to perceive form. Patients cannot draw objects, match similar objects or even describe objects, but they can move about and negotiate obstacles without difficulty.

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16
Q

What is associative agnosia?

A

An inability to use a mental representation of an object to access stored knowledge about the object.

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17
Q

What are the causes of agnosia?

A

Bilateral lesions that form blind spots called scotomata across visual fields
Failure to group characteristics which produce a formless representation
Damage to memory itself and so meaning cannot be retrieved.

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18
Q

What is prosopagnosia?

A

The inability to recognise faces that cannot be explained by problems with visual fields. Though unable to recognise faces via visual input other modalities such as voice can be used.

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19
Q

What is capgras delusion? How is it different to prosopagnosia?

A

Capgras delusion eecognises a face yet denies the identity of the individual (often believing theyre an imposter) but prosopagnosia is an inability to recognise or identify a face at all.
Loss in ventral stream can cause prosopagnosia, whilst loss in dorsal stream can result the in capgras delusion.

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20
Q

What is multi-sensory perception?

A

The process by which info from different senses is brought together.

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21
Q

What is the McGurk illusion?

A

The auditory component of a sound is paired with the visual component of another sound forming a third sound.
E.g ‘ba’ is presented to ears, ‘ga’ is presented to eyes, subject perceives ‘da’

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22
Q

What is synaesthesia?

A

The automatic production of a sense relating to one part of the body by stimulation of another sense relating to a different part of the body.

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23
Q

How can synaesthesia be acquired?

A

Sensory deprivation, pharmacologically triggered (LSD)

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24
Q

How do we know that synaesthesia is real?

A

Empircal research with high internal consistency, functional imaging studies and synaesthetic stroop effect support that it is a genuine phenomena and are not hallucinations

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25
What is attention?
A multidimensional concept that describe ways of responding in the cognitive system.
26
What is Cherry's cocktail party effect?
Humans can (selectively) attend to one conversation even though there may be many other conversations going on around them.
27
What are dichotic listening tasks?
Pps simultaneously receive one message in one ear and a different message in the other and are asked to record what they heard. Pps attend to one message and are unable to identify the language or any specific words on the unattended channel.
28
What is the problem of the cocktail party effect?
It does not reflect human experience because it suggests individuals do not extract meaning from the unattended conversation when in everyday life, individuals attend to unattended conversations when something relevant is talked about such as your name or a related theme.
29
What is broadbents filter model?
The cognitive system is seen as a series of info processing channels. A selective filter identifies what info is processed and passes it to a limited capacity channel at which it is said to be the focus of attention. A response is then generated.
30
What are the properties of Broadbents selective filter mechanism?
Selection is based solely on the physical info (explains dichotic listening tasks-identifying voice/noise/pitch, but not the contents of message) Info on unattended channels undergo no further processing The filter is consciously controlled.
31
What are the problems with Broadbents model?
Broadbents filter does not focus on the contents of unattended messages but by alternating connected words between channels in a dichotic listening task, pps are able to process meaning before and not after the filter suggesting it doesn't adequately describe human experience.
32
What is Treismans attenuation model?
Replaced broadbents filter with an attenuator which semantically analysed info to an extent so that relevant and meaningful info can be attended too, with some sources such as an individuals own name and 'help!' Become permanently facilitated.
33
Whats the problem with triesmans attenuation model?
The way in which attenuation processing is poorly specified and the model does not explain how this processing occurs.
34
What is Feature integration theory?
Features of a visual search such as colour with attention acting as a glue that combines the different features to form a coherent percept.
35
What is Posner's cueing paradigm of visual attention?
Cues can enhance attention without eye movements. Pps focus on a centre point and press a button as soon as they see a target in one of 2 boxes to the sides. Valid cues pointing to the correct box facilitates response time, invalid cues inhibit response times which demonstrates covert orienting of attention without eye movements.
36
How do we know attention is an automatic process?
It is effected by practice, for example reading leads to difficulties in The stroop effect and driving a familiar route can cause individuals to forget how they got there because practice makes it automatic - once activated it runs to completion.
37
What 3 factors affect divided attention (completing simultaneous tasks)?
How similar the tasks are(overlap in storage, processing or output) How practiced the operator is Difficulty of task
38
What is trait anxiety?
The extent to which an individual is generally anxious.
39
What is state anxiety?
Refers to the extent of anxiousness that an individual feels at a given moment.
40
What are clinical anxiety disorders?
High levels of anxiety that impact functioning in day to day life.
41
How is attentional bias assessed in individuals with anxiety?
The emotional stroop Dot-probe task Visual search tasks
42
What are the theoretical issues of attentional biases and anxiety?
Unconditional biases suggest they are innate, but it has been found that relevance effects attentional biases- anxious individuals are constantly consciously searching for danger. Issues of causality - anxiety can be caused by training biases in individuals (anxiety is a symptom of bias) but treatment to manage anxiety reduces bias via cognitive restructuring (anxiety causes bias)
43
Define neglect
A failure to report, respond or orient to contralesional stimuli (stimuli on the opposite side of space to their lesion).
44
What behavioural symptoms arise from neglect?
Shave one side of face Eat off one side of a plate Read text on one half of the page
45
What tests are used to diagnose neglect?
Line bisection task (marking the midpoint of a line) - neglect patients place it slightly to the contralesional side. Copying pictures - patients draw half the picture Cancellation tasks - visual search which patients can only find targets on one half of the screen.
46
How does neglect operate?
Patients with neglect operate on egocentric reference frames as a result of a double dissociation of real space this means that they view everything to the left or right of oneself by extracting a dominant axis and ignoring one side.
47
How does the Milan square experiment support egocentric reference frames?
Pps familiar with the milan square were asked to imagine themselves there at different viewpoints and asked to describe landmarks, at each point neglect patients described the right side of their viewpoint ignoring the left side, even though the combined descriptions showed they knew info about the entire square.
48
What is Knowledge?
Semantic memories that are independent of context, stored relatively permanently and not organised temporally.
49
What is Smith et al. Feature comparison model of knowledge?
Concepts are stored as lists of defining features
50
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the feature comparison model?
Supported by sentence verification tasks. | However, few concepts can actually be reduced to a list of characteristics.
51
What is semantic priming?
The effect in which individuals respond quicker to a target word when it is preceded by a semantically related word compared to an unrelated word. e.g 'dog' will be responded to faster when preceded by the word 'cat' rather than 'car'
52
What is the typicality effect?
Individuals respond more quickly to typical examples of a category than they would to examples considered atypical
53
What is Rosch's prototype model of knowledge?
Concepts are defined using a centre/average of a category. Objects are categorised in 3 levels: superordinate, basic and subordinate. Basic level are used to name objects and have the largest semantic priming effects and can distort memory.
54
What are the limitations of the prototype model?
Prototypes cam change with context | Prototypes change between individuals depending on expertise.
55
What is Nosofskys exemplar model of knowledge?
Concepts are defined using specific examples and explains the typicality effect in which some examples that share more characteristics with a new stimuli lead to quicker categorisation.
56
What is Collins & Quillians hierarchical nets model of knowledge?
Concepts are represented as nodes that are connected by links that show semantic relatedness. All knowledge is organised into a hierarchy arranged in superordinate and subordinate which make up a cognitive economy(combining simplicity and relevance for a representation of knowledge)
57
What is Collins and Loftus' semantic nets model?
Concepts represented as nodes which are closer or further away based on semantic relatedness and with links allowing a spreading activation in order to search for similar concepts.
58
What is the false memory effect/DRM paradigm?
A task that asks pps to recall a list of words that have a similar concept. Pps then end up Recalling words that were not presented to them due to semantic primimg and spreading activation of closer related words. For example, recalling the word 'red' when asked to recall the words 'fire truck, apple, and orange'
59
What is the ACT-R model?
A theory of all cognition that suggests memory is a semantic net, in which retrieval cues spread activation that decreases over time and space. Concepts that receive activation over a threshold are retrieved and more thinly spread activation are less likely to be recalled.
60
What is the fan effect?
Recognition times for a particular concept increases as more information about the concept is acquired.
61
What is McClleland and Rumelharts parallel distributed processing model of semantic memory/knowledge?
Nodes are connected by links. Concepts are represented by a pattern of activity distributed across many nodes with various links having different weights. Information processing is parallel with many patterns of activation occurring at the same time.
62
What are schemas?
A framework of understanding any particular situation or concept in the world, with a fixed core and a range of variables.
63
What are scripts?
An account of events that typically happen that allow a greater flexibility in the representational of knowledge, but are scientifically untestable
64
What is deductive reasoning?
Using given premises to draw a particular conclusion based on the principles of logic
65
How is deductive reasoning measured?
Conditional reasoning tasks that ask pps to judge whether a conclusion is valid or invalid based on the premise of the problem. Syllogism task in which pps have to assume two statements are true and judge whether the conclusion is valid/invalid or indeterminate.
66
What factors affect reasoning?
``` Negative information (use of no or not makes it more difficult to process) Abstract concepts (concrete examples are easier to process) Belief-bias effect (making judgements on prior beliefs rather than on logic) Confirmation bias (tendency to interpret info to affirm prior beliefs) ```
67
What is a heuristic?
General strategies that typically produce a correct solution
68
What are the three types of heuristics used when making decisions (Kahneman & Tvesky)?
Availability heuristic Representativeness heuristic Anchoring/adjustment heuristic
69
What is the availability heuristic?
Used to estimate frequency/probability on the basis of examples that come to mind.
70
What affects the availability heuristic ?
Familiarity | Recency
71
What is the representativeness heuristic ?
Used to judge a samples extent of similarity to the population it is derived from
72
What affects the representativeness heuristic?
Base rate fallacy (emphasising representativeness, ignoring base rate)
73
What is the anchoring/adjustment heuristic?
A first approximation (called the anchor) is adjusted on the basis of additional info
74
What affects the anchor/adjustment heuristic?
Belief bias affect Confirmation bias Illusory correlation (perceiving a relationship between variables, even when no relationship exists)
75
What is the framing effect?
The outcome of a decision is influenced by the context of the choice and by the way the question is worded (framed)
76
What are the components of the frontal lobes?
Motor cortex - controls simple actions Pre-motor cortex - plans and selects more complicated action sequences Pre-frontal cortex - mediate higher cognitive functions and strategically use other resources.
77
What is dysexecutive syndrome?
The disruption of executive function usually as result of damage to the frontal lobe or connections to the frontal lobes.
78
What are examples of executive functions?
Attentional control, inhibitory control, working memory, motor coordination, and problem solving.
79
What is the case study of Phineas Gage?
Mental rod penetrated through face and head. Damage to his left ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Personality affected after becoming more impulsive and impatient compared to before the accident.
80
How is dysexecutive syndrome assessed?
``` Utilisation behaviour Wisconsin card sorting test Stroop test Hayling test Multiple errands test ```
81
What is Norman & Shallice's supervisory attentional system?
Actions are either automatic (executed without awareness) by using well learned schemas or actions are under attentional control in which contention scheduling selects one particular schema to be enacted from competing schemas. This occurs via activation levels of schemas, with the highest activation schema being the most appropriate.
82
How does the supervisory attentional system explain dysexecutive syndrome?
Clinical symptoms are a result of failure to use appropriate schemas which can explain why they cannot supress habitual responses in the wiscosin card sorting test, stroop test and hayling test. It can also argue that perseveration is a result of schemas are unable to deactivate when they are no longer relevant to the situation.
83
What is Damasio's somatic marker hypothesis?
The ventromedial prefrontal cortex holds links between facts, emotions and physiological changes. When facing complex choices emotions are used to guide the decision. Therefore, damage to this area means a disruption of decision making leading to poor choices. This is supported by the iowa gambling task.
84
What is the psychobiological view of apetite?
Eating is a consequence of physiological processes monitoring nutrient status.
85
What are the cognitive theories of susceptibility to eat?
``` Externality theory (obese people are more responsive to external signal rather than internal/physiological appetite signals) Restraint theory (cognitive processes fail to restrict the intake of food) Emotional eating theory (eating in response to negative emotions in ana attempt to distract attention from or alleviate these feelings) ```
86
How is food attention measured?
``` Dot probe task (reaction time quicker with food cue if attentional bias for food is present) Stroop task (attentional bias for food is present if pps slower to name colour for food related stimuli compared with neutral stimuli) ```
87
How does attentional bias affect obesity?
Obese individuals have a preferential bias to food cues, this cause heightened emotional responses to food cues which leads to stronger approach tendencies and overeating.
88
What flavour preferences are innate?
Liking sweet and disliking bitter
89
What is assimilation theory?
The expected and sensed experience combine so that the evaluation of the food is closer to the expectation. Therefore, if there is an expectation that an individual will like a certain food they are actually more likely to like it. But when the expected and sensed experience are very different it is more likely to be rated poorly.
90
What is sensory specific satiety?
Decrease in palatability of recently eaten foods while still desiring more of other foods as a result of habituation to sensory properties.
91
What modifications to perceptions can reduce obesity?
Establish healthy eating in childhood (learnt liking) Increase expectations that small portions will be filling Decrease variety (sensory specific satiety)
92
How does memory affect overeating?
Disruption in encoding of memories while eating (such as watching tv while eating) results in overeating at the next meal. This is due to less detail of portion size in memory which increases the intake at next meal.
93
How can enhancing memories reduce obesity?
Increase attention to experience of eating (food focus-focus on smell, taste, texture) Slow down rate of eating Discourage distractions while eating.
94
What is metaphysical libertarianism?
The claim that determinism is false and hence free will exists.
95
What is hard determinism?
The claim that free will does not exist
96
What is Libet et al. The unconscious initiation of voluntary acts experiment?
Pps watch a dot rotating on a clock face and at a time of their choosing they spontaneously press a button and asked to report when they first felt the urge to move. It appears to demonstrate unconscious brain processes precede conscious processes which incompatablists use as evidence against free will.
97
What are the disorders of volition?
Anarchic hand syndrome and Utilisation behaviour
98
What are the three characteristics of drug addiction?
Compulsive drug seeking and taking Inability to stop and high relapse rates after cessation Drugs become more wanted and less liked.
99
How is impulse control measured?
Iowa gambling task | 5-choice serial reaction time task

Psychology UG (uni) (4 decks)

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