cognitive psychology

Question 1

msm AO1

Answer 1

sensory store-
coding: encoded in a form appropriate to the sense
capacity: all the information from the world passes through senses - very high
duration: 0.5 unless paid attention to it

short term-
coding: acoustic
capacity: 7 items
duration: less than 30 secs unless rehearsed

long term-
coding: semantic
capacity: potentially unlimited
duration: up to a lifetime

Question 2

msm strengths

Answer 2

supported by baddeley - showed that STM relies on acoustic encoding through experiment where participants were given 4 different lists of 10 different words and told to recall in the same order, worse performance with similar words supporting the MSM idea of stm and ltm being separate stores with distinct coding methods

Clive Wearing - lost many memories and cannot make new ones but remembers his wife and children - demonstrates that STM and LTM are different stores

Question 3

msm weaknesses

Answer 3

reductionist - over emphasises the role of rehearsal and suggests information needs to be remembered but doesnt consider importance of emotion and relevance of the material to individuals

KF was in a motorcycle accident - his stm was in tact but he couldnt understand things acoustically, only visually which shows that there are separate stm components of visual and verbal information which the msm does not consider or include

Question 4

wmm AO1

Answer 4

central executive-
function: controller of the model, determines which info is and isnt attended to - directs info to other slave systems
coding: processes information in all sensory forms (modality free)
capacity: limited, one strand of info at one time

visuo spacial sketchpad-
function: temporary store for visual and spatial items and relationships between them - store for what items are and where they are
coding:
visual cache - stores information about form, shapes and color
inner scribe - transfers information from visual cache to central executive
capacity - capacity is limited to about 3-4 items

episodic buffer-
function: temporary store for information, integrating the visual and verbal information, remains a sense of time sequencing by recording events that are happening - can be seen as the storage component of the central executive and also links STM to LTM
coding: both auditory and visual
capacity: about 4 chunks

phonological loop-
function: acoustic store that deals w auditory information + order in which we hear information
capacity: limited, determined by amount of information spoken out loud in 2 seconds
coding:
phonological store - inner ear, stores acoustic items for 1-2 seconds
articulatory control process - inner voice, stores words that have been heard or seen, allows for sub vocal repetition of items in the phonological store

Question 5

wmm strengths

Answer 5

neuroimaging supports wmm concept - paulescu found while using pet scans that left hemisphere was active during speech tasks and right hemisphere was active during visual tasks - empirical, objective and replicable research gives WMM assumptions validity

helps to explain multi-tasking and learning difficulties such as retro and antrograde amnesia - can be used to create treatments and target brain structured

Question 6

wmm weaknesses

Answer 6

case studies are too unique to each individual, some would react differently in their situation to different cognitive impairments such as a motorcycle accident or a lobotomy - difficult to generalise to wider population

studies showing wmm lack ecological validity as they lack mundane realism - baddeleys task of describing a letter and following light is not an ordinary activity and doesnt tell us how memory works in normal situations - limitied capacities for both vss and phonological loop

Question 7

rm AO1

Answer 7

information is stored when it is remembered and rebuilt so it can be affected by extra information and by ideas (like schemas) we already have

every time we recall a memory it is reconstructed - we only record small fragments of information and piece these together when we reconstruct a memory

every time we retell the story the fragments combine slightly differently

memory is an active process - we store fragments/snapshots of information and reconstruct the rest, most of our memories miss a lot of info and can be inaccurate

we use social and cultural schemas to reconstruct the memories

we recall the meaning of the event first - then we make an effort to piece together the story from fragments

Question 8

rm strength

Answer 8

loftus and palmer demonstrated reconstructive memory through the use of leading questions - by changing the verb to be increasingly persuasive such as knocked, bumped, collided and crashed, the intensity of the crash changed in our minds causing us to remember the actual crash ourselves, evidencing bartletts theory

helps to explain limitations of eyewitness testimony - research demonstrates that schema can effect recall of events and questions the accuracy of testimonies due to people already have predisposed ideas of “criminals”

Question 9

rm weakness

Answer 9

not all memories are inaccurate or affected by schemas if situations are personally important or distinctive - something black came out of his mouth was remembered by most showing that not everything is reconstructed

barletts study did not use standardised/replicable methods and lacked objectivity - did not have the same experience so its difficult to compare their recounts of the story, evidence underlying rm lacks reliability and validity

Question 10

war of the ghosts AO1

Answer 10

aimed to investigate how memory is reconstructed when people are asked to recall a story over a period of weeks and months

unfamiliar story from a different culture to see how expectations affect memory

20 participants from cambridge and asked them to reproduce it 15 mins later

showed the new version to another person and asked them to recall it a short time later

participants were asked to recall the story after a few days, weeks, months and years

felt hard cus it was a diff culture - tested to see if memories were reconstructed using cultural norms

story shortened, students altered story to fit into their own cultures - bows and arrows -> guns

memories are fragmented and reconstruct memory based on expectations and predisposed ideas

Question 11

ltm AO1

Answer 11

different long terms stores due to the vast capacity

propsed by tulving

episodic - personal experiences, time stamped, specific details, context, associated emotions, needs conscious effort to recall memories

semantic - basic knowledge of the world, not time stamped, constantly being added to

procedural - muscle memory, without conscious effort, automatic

Question 12

ltm strengths

Answer 12

hm had difficulty recalling episodic memories but his semantic memories in tact - couldnt remember stroking a dog but knew what a dog was, could tie his showlaces and walk, after surgery he could form new procedural memories but not semantic or episodic - demonstrates theres diff ltm stores

tulvings pet scans showed that episodic and semantic memories were from prefrontal cortex but semantic in left and episodic in the right - internal validity as it provides objective evidence and shows different memory stores

Question 13

ltm weaknesses

Answer 13

case studies are specific to one persons situation - cannot generalise that all people in hms situation would react the same

issues arise from studying alzheimers and memory deficits due to socially sensitive nature of it - potentially creates negative perception of them that threatens the dignity of people and can therefore be unethical research

Question 14

baddeley AO1

Answer 14

aim: investigate encoding in STM and LTM - the influence of acoustic and semantic similarity on long term memory for word lists

lab experiment
72 participants from the army
hearing test given beforehand - 3 excluded
4 lists of 10 words to see if participants remember correct words in order
independent groups design - 4 groups learned 1 list each, heard the words presented aloud on tape, 1 word every 3 seconds
40 second to write the words in any order
20 minute distractor task
had to recall the words in order again
this was done 4 times

stm performed worse w acoustically similar words
ltm performed worse w semantically similar words

suggests stm is encoded acoustically, ltm is encoded semantically

Question 15

baddeley strengths

Answer 15

controlled lab experiment with standardised replicable procedure - reliability could be tested as all participants learned 10 words and each word was shown for exactly 3 seconds - all took part in the distraction task, consistent results

showed that ltm is semantic which can improve long term recall of info - when revising students should try to relate the information to things they already now to process it using mind maps etc - help students process the material semantically

Question 16

baddeley weaknesses

Answer 16

low generalisability - only used psych students who could have displayed demand characteristics if they are attuned to research methods and guessed the aim as they are cambridge students - not representative of target population

low ecological validity - low mundane realism in memorising a word list semantically and acoustically, cannot assume this is how participants react in real life setting

Question 17

shg AO1

Answer 17

aim: investigate development of phonological loop of wm in children aged 5-17 digit span
to confirm the findings of studies with english participants with spanish school children

570 volunteers from pre, primary and secondary schools in madrid
all native spanish
5-17 years old
excluded those w hearing/reading/writing impairments
practice sequence to begin
1 digit red per second , 3 trials each
field setting, tested individually at break time, 5 age groups and average digit span recorded for each age group

5/6 aged native spanish kids had shorter digit span than 7 aged english kids

digit span increases w age up to 15 in english kids, 17 in spanish
avg for spanish was lower - due to word length effect

Question 18

shg strengths

Answer 18

standardised procedure (digit read at 1 per second) means all ppts experienced the same, replicable across other countries, findings agree with the english participants results

can be used to understand real life cognitive skills - short digit span is linked to dyslexia and long digit span linked to better readers

Question 19

brain structure AO1

Answer 19

cns detects environmental changes and stimuli and processes information to prod a response and coordinates muscles to prod a response

pns associated w physiological responses, sympathetic fight or flight is automatic/involuntary response for stressful situations

cerebral cortex - conscious thought/decisions

frontal lobe - higher order thinking/planning, controls motor area, brocas area

parietal lobe - sensations like touch, heat, pressure, integrates info for complex behavior

occipital lobe - visual info like color, shape, distances, damage leads to vision issues

temporal lobe - auditory processing, wernicke’s area, damage leads to hearing loss or aphasia

cerebellum maintains balance and coordination and movement

limbic system is processing emotions, fight or flight response

thalamus is the sensory relay station, sends input to relevant brain areas, sleep wakefulness, ocd

hypothalamus - maintains homeostasis

brain stem - autonomic functions, heart rate, vomiting reflex

Question 19

shg weaknesses

Answer 19

artificial task has low mundane realism - digit span testing is not something u do in everyday life

lack of controls like testing for impairments and relied on children or parents info

Question 20

brain structure strengths

Answer 20

objective explanation that can be measured - physical evidence

can inform clinical treatments (targeting neural pathways with medication or therapies) and has application in forensic psychology to assess offenders risk and responsibility in cases involving brain damage

Question 21

brain structure weakness

Answer 21

reductionist - only focuses on biological factors rather than environmental nuture aspects

correlation is not causation - damage could be a result of aggression not the cause, cannot make that assumption

Question 22

neurotransmitters AO1

Answer 22

chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse
stored in vesicles in axon terminal
released into synapse when action potential reaches terminal
binds to receptors on next neuron

serotonin - mood regulation, sleep, appetite - low levels linked to depression, aggression, impulsivity

dopamine - reward, motivation, movement - high levels linked to schitzophrenia, low levels affect motivation and attention

GABA - calms nervous system, reduces activity - low levels linked to anxiety and seizures

norepinephrine - arousal and alertness - imbalance linked to stress response, anxiety and mood disorders

acetylcholine - learning, memory, muscle movement - linked to alzheimers

excitatory (eg glutamate) increases chance of new impulse

inhibitory (eg GABA) decrease chance of an impulse

Question 23

neurotransmitters strengths

Answer 23

scientific and measurable - can be measured using brain scans, drug trials, post mortem studies, providing objective and quantifiable data

led to effective treatments such as ssris for depression or antipsychotics for schitzophrenia - shows practical use in improving mental health

Question 24

neurotransmitters weaknesses

Answer 24

reductionist - does not consider environmental factors correlational is not causational

Question 25

recreational drugs AO1

Answer 25

psychoactive drugs that change perception, mood, consciousness, cognition and behavior - affect CNS transmission agonist - drugs that occupy receptors and activate them antagonist - drugs that occupy receptors but do not activate them, block receptor activation by agonists nicotine agonist of acetylcholine receptors causes depolarisation increasing neurotransmitter rewarding and addictive abilities linked to increased dopamine release in nucleus accumbens cocaine blocks reuptake of dopamine into pre synaptic neuron so more is left in synapse for the message to continue heroine reduces GABA activity which leads to over activity of dopaminergic neurotransmission in brain reward pathway

Question 26

recreational drugs strengths

Answer 26

observations of drug users demonstrate at first a feeling of great pleasure followed by addictive behaviors - supports the credibility of recreational drugs being associated with dopamine reward pathway for feelings of pleasure olds and milner discovered pleasure center associated with limbic system in mice which can be applied

Question 27

recreational drugs weakness

Answer 27

reductionist laboratory sudies conducted in an artificial environment have low ecological validity making it hard to generalise findings to real life context of human drug addicts

Question 28

hormones AO1

Answer 28

chemical messengers released by endocrine glands into the bloodstream that travel to target organs to influence behavior testosterone secreted by testes regulates male development and dominance related behavior high levels associated w increased aggression reduce activity in prefrontal cortex lowering impulse control found in both human and animal studies cortisol secreted by adrenal cortex helps body respond to stress low levels linked to impulsive aggression usually inhibits aggressive behavior - low levels may reduce this brake chronic low cortisol found in people with antisocial or violent tendencies adrenaline adrenal medulla increases heart rate, blood pressure and alertness prepares body for action in threatening situations may contribute to reactive aggression

Question 29

hormones strengths

Answer 29

biological credibility and objectivity - measurable and quantifiable dabbs et al - prisoners with higher testosterone were likely to commit violent crimes, supports idea that hormone levels influence aggression

Question 30

hormones weaknesses

Answer 30

reductionist causation doesnt equal correlation

Question 31

brain scans AO1

Answer 31

cat scan x ray beams passed at different angles rotating around the head to create cross sectional image of the brain prod by computer allows us to see inside the body as beams cannot be absorbed pros: identify abnormal structures of the brain (lesions, tumors, brain damage), non invasive and less harmful than pet scans, used to monitor progression of neurodegenerative disease cons: unethical to excessively expose people to xray radiation, causes cancer, does not provide information about brain activity, patient must be still pet scan injection of radioactive tracer to active regions of the brain as its used up in respiration in nerve cells this causes the tracer to break down and emit positrons which radiate gamma rays pros: investigate brain activity, safer than ct scanning - no xrays, abnormal functions can be visualised to identify impact on patient cons: invasive, 2-4 hours, one per year fMRI measures blood flow to brain when person performs task more active neurons show o2 carried by active neurons causes deoxygenated blood to have different magnetic quality from oxygenated which the fmri can detect creates 3d activation map of the brain pros: map of activation, no exposure to x rays or invasive, clear images cons: not suitable for those with metal surgical implants, no information on how receptors function, claustrophobic

Question 32

evolution AO1

Answer 32

genetic variation occurs in population due to new alleles from mutations selection pressure, favorable selected those survive and reproduce to form offspring sexual selection symbol of genetic fitness guarding offspring each child is valuable genetic commodity few sit where females are as aggressive as men MAOA gene causes excess neurotransmitters in synapse, resulting in continuous transmission, manifesting as aggression or violent outbursts and rage

Question 33

evolution strengths

Answer 33

thornhill palmer, adapted to rape to obtain inaccessible partners, behavior of rape evolved over milennia of human history chester et al, saliva samples from 277 male and female participants, greater reactivity to negative experiences such as negative urgency and impulsive behavior

Question 34

evolution weakness

Answer 34

freud social learning theory

Question 35

freud AO1

Answer 35

ID; developed at birth exists in unconscious urges, instinct, desire impulsive instant gratification denial results in frustration inner child Ego: develops at age 2 exists in conscious logic, decision, control mediator triggers defence mechanisms inner adult Superego: develops age 3-5 exists in unconscious and conscious morals and values challenges ID inner parent repression unconscious mechanism to keep disturbing and threatening thoughts to become conscious repressed - feelings of guilt from superego long term = anxiety denial blocking external events from awareness refusal to admit that ID instincts are real sublimation ID is satisfied but transformed into something socially acceptable displacement redirection of an impulse onto a powerless substitute projection individuals attributing their own thoughts and feelings to another you hate someone so you think they hate u so its justified catharsis process of releasing negative energy in the mind sport, art, music relieve conflicts of unconscious mind and symptoms of distress psychotherapy id's eros energy is libido which explains aggression in sex offenders thanatos drives death instinct which explains aggressive behaviours in violent criminals

Question 36

freud strengths

Answer 36

psychotherapy based on his idea of catharsis considers early childhood experience and unconscious influences - acknowledges impulsive aggression and importance of early intervention and aligns with real world evidence on trauma and behavioral problems

Question 37

freud weaknesses

Answer 37

unfalsifiable social learning theory

Question 38

raine AO1

Answer 38

aim: examine difference in brain functions of ngris and control non murdering participants using brain scans 41 participants (39 males, 2 females) control group 41 participants, same sex, mean age 32 matched pairs based on age, gender, ethnicity methodology - quasi, brain damage naturally occuring combined with lab procedure participants had to practice CPT for 10 mins before tracer injected to ensure familiar no medication control participants had physical and psychiatric examination injected w glucose tracer performed CPT for 32 mins given a pet scan compared on the level of brain activity in right and left hemispheres ngri had less activity in prefrontal cortex - impulsive behavior, loss of control ngri had imbalances in amygdala activity - lack of fear

Question 39

raine strengths

Answer 39

high reliability, pet scans can be repeated, standardised 32 mins CPT can be repeated high internal validity, matched pairs design so greater control over extraneous variables

Question 40

raine weaknesses

Answer 40

low task validity and low mundane realism 1990s pet scans unclear and had to be interpreted which is subjective based on an individuals interpretation

Question 41

twin study AO1

Answer 41

aim: explore overlap between physical and social aggression longitudinal 234 pairs of twins 94 MZ 140 DZ 6 years old twins categorised as MZ or DZ based on looks teacher rating - scored behavior on a scale of 0-2 peer rating - classmates circled photos of peers who fit behavior descriptions separate social and physical aggression scores calculated data analyzed using ACE model physical aggression 54% explained by genetics social aggressiom 80 environmental

Question 42

twin study strengths

Answer 42

standardised procedure + longitudinal design improve consistency findings help inform early intervention in schools and highlight importance of peer environment in aggression

Question 43

twin study weakness

Answer 43

ethnocentric (quebec) and age limited (6 yr) - cannot generalise to other ages, non twins, or ethnicities peer nominations may be biased by popularity or group dynamics, subjective

Question 44

adoption study AO1

Answer 44

aim: investigate if schitzophrenia is genetic by studying children adopted away from schitzophrenic mothers matched pairs design 58 adopted individuals, 58 controls all adopted at birth assessed using: police, school, court, psychiatric records, relatives, employers, friends, personal interviews, iq testing 3 independent psychiatrists reviewed records and agreed on diagnosis sz diagnosed in 10.6% of experimental, 0% in control

Question 45

adoption study strengths

Answer 45

informs understanding of schitzophrenias heritability, genetic counseling, shaping intervention standardised psychiatric criteria and 3 inter rater reliability

Question 46

adoption study weaknesss

Answer 46

ethnocentric (oregon), historical (1915-1945), cannot generalise to modern populations or other ethnicities privacy and informed consent from secondary sources such as friends and employers