Conscience Flashcards
1
Q
What is conscience?
A
Our sense of moral right and wrong
2
Q
What are the four main questions about conscience?
A
- What is conscience?
- Where does conscience come from?
- Is conscience innate or acquired?
- What is its function in ethical decision-making?
3
Q
What quote did Mark Twain write about conscience?
A
“I have noticed my conscience for many years, and I know it is more trouble and bother to me than anything else I started with”
4
Q
What is the problem with conscience?
A
It lacks consistency whether between people in general, or in any particular person. If conscience is so changeable, how can it be a reliable guide?
5
Q
What does Biblical teaching say about conscience?
A
It is assumed by some biblical writers and early Christian teachers that our conscience is God-given. Traditional Christian teaching is based on this-everyone knows what is right and wrong as God has given us this ability. It is also implied that by following their conscience, everyone can follow the divine law.
6
Q
What quote does St Paul use in his letter to the Romans about conscience?
A
“They show that what the law required is written on their hearts.”
7
Q
What did Thomas Aquinas believe conscience was?
A
He saw conscience as the natural ability of people to understand the difference between right and wrong. It is reasoning used correctly to find out what God sees is good.
8
Q
What does Aquinas think people innately do?
A
He believed that all people aim for what is good and try to avoid the bad. It is innate to seek the good, and sin is merely falling short of God’s ideals, when people seek apparent goods, which are actually bad because they are not using their powers of reason properly.
9
Q
What quote does Aquinas use to explain conscience?
A
He argued that conscience “was the mind of man making moral judgements.”
10
Q
What two essential parts does conscience contain according to Aquina?
A
Syderesis and conscientia
11
Q
What is synderesis?
A
The repeated us of what Aquinas termed ‘right’ reason, by which a person acquired knowledge of basic moral principles and understands that it is important to do good and avoid evil.
12
Q
What is conscientia?
A
The actual ethical judgement or decision a person makes which leads to a particular course of actions based upon these principles
13
Q
What does Aquinas mean when he says it is always right to follow your conscience?
A
That it is always right to apply your moral principles to each situation as best as you can. He does not mean that if you follow your conscience you are always right- as if your principles are wrong, your conscience will be wrong too.
14
Q
What is the problem with Aquinas’ approach?
A
The fact that he fails to take into account direct revelation from God.
15
Q
What did Joseph Butler say distinguished people from animals?
A
He wrote that the most crucial thing which distinguished women and men from the animal world was the possession of the faculty of reflection of conscience.
16
Q
What quote did Joseph Butler use to describe the principle of reflection?
A
“There is a principle of reflection in men by which they distinguish between approval and disapproval of their own actions…this principle in man…is conscience.”
17
Q
What did Butler agree with Aquinas about the conscience?
A
Like Aquinas, Butler believed conscience could determine and judge the rightness or wrongness of different actions and thoughts.
18
Q
Why did Butler believe that conscience held a powerful position within human decision-making?
A
Because it “magisterially exerts itself” spontaneously “without being consulted.”
19
Q
How important was conscience to Butler?
A
He saw that it was something authoritative and automatic, and he gave conscience the final say in moral decision-making, as the final moral authority.
20
Q
What quote did Butler use to describe the authority of conscience?
A
“Had it strength, as it has right; had it power as it has manifest authority, it would absolutely govern the world.”
21
Q
How did Butler see human nature?
A
As hierarchical and at its top was conscience.
22
Q
How does Butler define self-love?
A
Butler thought of this as wanting the well-being or self or enlightened self-interest, not selfishness.
23
Q
How does Butler define benevolence?
A
Butler saw this as wanting the well-being of others.
24
Q
What is the hierarchy of human nature according to Butler?
A
- At the bottom are basic drives, such as the drive for food, which influence us without any thought for the consequences.
- Above this are two general impulses: self-love and benevolence
- Higher than this is the principle of reflection, linked closely to the conscience and it is that which makes us approve of disapprove of our actions.
25
Where did Butler view the principle of reflection/ conscience as coming from?
He saw it as being given to us by God. He believed conscience was a person's God given guide to right conduct and its demands must therefore always be followed if someone is to be truly happy.
26
Why does Butler argue we need our conscience/ principle of reflection?
We have to use it to lead a proper, happy life.
27
What is Butler's view on what conscience is based on?
He does not try to analyse whether conscience is based on reason or feeling or both: he just says that it obviously exists; it comes from God and must be obeyed if a person is to be truly happy.
28
How did Butler view mistakes made by conscience?
He did not see mistakes made by conscience as a serious problem, as he believed that in any moral dilemma most people will see intuitively what is the right thing to do.
29
What does Butler consider wicked?
He considers it wicked to 'blind' one's conscience to clear the way for a wrong action. People can easily convince themselves that all sorts of wrong actions are right and, for Butler, this corruption of conscience by self-deception is worse than the evil action which results from it.
30
What does Butler think conscience will lead people to do?
He thinks that conscience will tell you to watch out for the interest of others as far as possible.
31
How did Butler view the consequences of actions?
The consequence of an action is not what makes it right or wrong, as that has already happened.
32
What is the purpose of conscience according to Butler?
The purpose of conscience is to guide a person into a way of life that will make him happy.
33
What does Butler say conscience will harmonise?
Conscience will harmonise self-love and benevolence- this may take some sorting out, and so in moral dilemmas we may be uncertain what to do.
34
What does Newman believe a person is doing when they follow their conscience?
When a person follows conscience he is simultaneously, in some mysterious way, following divine law.
35
What does Newman consider conscience to be?
Conscience is a "messenger" of God and it is God speaking to us when we feel this intuitive moral knowledge and make moral decisions.
36
What does Newman believe conscience is for Christians?
For Christians, it is more than simply a 'law of the mind' since it comes from God.
37
How does Newman view conscience relating to truth?
He says that conscience does not invent the truth, but at its best it detects the truth.
38
What quote does Newman use to imply the existence of god and his role in conscience?
"If, as is the case, we feel responsibility, are ashamed, are frightened, at transgressing the voice of conscience, this implies there is One to whom we are responsible, before whom we are ashamed, whose claims upon us we fear."
39
What did Augustine of Hippo believe about conscience?
He identified it with the voice of God speaking to us.
40
What does Augustine urge all Christians to do?
To be concerned about their conscience and to consider it most seriously.
41
What quote did Augustine use to highlight the important of conscience?
"Return to your conscience, question it...turn inward, brethren, and in everything you do, see God as your witness."
42
What is the problem with saying that conscience is the voice of God?
The problem is the fact that people have different ideas about what is right and wrong, and different views about what God is saying to them.
43
What is similar between Butler's, Newman's, and Augustine's ideas on conscience?
They all rely on a more intuitionist approach whereby people are able to sense or intuit what is right and wrong, because God reveals this to them personally.
44
What did Freud believe about the soul?
He believed there was no such thing as a soul
45
How did Freud view the mind?
As essentially mechanistic.
46
What three areas did Freud conclude that human personality consisted of?
1. The super-ego
2. The ego
3. The id
47
What is the super-ego?
The set of moral controls given to us by outside influences. It reinforces ideas of correct behaviour implanted in us when we are young.
48
What is the ego?
The conscience self; the part seen by the outside world.
49
What is the id?
The unconscious self the part of the mind containing basic drives and repressed memories. It is amoral, as it has no concerns about right and wrong and is only concerned with itself
50
What is conscience according to Freud?
For Freud, conscience is most clearly connected with the sense of guilt we feel when we go against our conscience. Conscience then is simply a construct of the mind, in person to externally imposed authority which is then internalized. For religious people these may be a response to their perceptions of God.
51
What did Freud say that our conscience was shaped by?
Freud did not believe in any absolute moral law and held that all our moral codes, and thus the content of our consciences, are shaped by our experiences- it is culturally dependent and this explains the varieties of moral codes that are to be found in different societies.
52
How is conscience connected to guilt according to Freud?
The super-ego internalises the disapproval of others and creates the guilty conscience which grows into internal force regardless of any individual rational thought or reflection.
53
What issue does Freud's idea of conscience raise?
If our conscience was shaped by outside experiences, then it would imply that this is just a form of moral control and that we have no freedom.
54
How have psychologists since Freud expanded on his ideas?
They have included that of immature and mature consciences which develop as we grow up. This will not necessarily be a continuous development and some people will never reach the stage of having a mature conscience.
55
What did Jean Pieget think a child's moral development depended on?
According to Piaget a child's moral development grows and the ability to reason morally depends on cognitive development.
56
What two stages of moral development did Piaget suggest?
- Heteronomous morality
| - Autonomous morality
57
What is heteronomous morality according to Piaget?
(between the ages of approximately 5 and 10 years) when the conscience is still immature, rules are not to be broken and punishment is expected if a rule is broken. The consequences of an action will show if it is right or wrong.
58
What is autonomous morality?
(approximately ages 10+) When children develop their own rules and understand how rules operate in and help society. The move towards autonomous morality occurs when the child is less dependent on others for moral authority.
59
How did Lawrence Kohlberg follow Piaget;s ideas?
He identified six stages of moral development which he believed that individuals had to follow in sequence.
60
What did Kohlberg feel most adults did in regards to conscience?
Kohlberg believed that most adults never developed beyond keeping the law.
61
What did both Piaget and Kohlberg believe?
They believed that most moral development and the development of a conscience occur through social interaction.
62
What were Erich Fromm's first belief about what influences humans (authoritarian conscience)?
He believed that all humans are influenced by external authorities who apply rules and punishments for breaking them, and that these rules are then internalised by the individual.
63
What did Fromm originally believe a guilty conscience was the result off? (authoritarian conscience)?
It was the result of displeasing authority and if that authority is God then the fear of being rejected will have a powerful influence on an individual. Disobedience produces guilt, which in turn weakens our power and makes us more submissive to authority.
64
What would be an example of the authoritarian conscience?
The Nazi control in Germany.
65
What was Fromm's later approach to conscience?
The humanistic conscience
66
Why did see his later form of conscience (the humanistic conscience) healthier?
The humanistic conscience was much healthier, since it assesses and evaluates our behaviour. We use it to judge how successful we are as people. It is our real self and leads us to realise our potential as far as possible.
67
What did Fromm's later approach say conscience was based on (the humanistic conscience)?
We use our own discoveries in life, and the teachings and examples of others, to give us personal integrity and moral honesty- quite the opposite of the slavish obedience and conformity of the authoritarian conscience.
68
What did the Roman Catholic Church say that conscience was based on?
At its second Vatican Council it discusses the issue of conscience and agreed that there was a law inside each person which speaks to the individual heart.
69
How does the Roman Catholic Church understand conscience?
As a personal and inner sense of right and wrong, but which worked like any law, and which held the person obedient.
70
Where does the Roman Catholic Church think conscience come from?
In one Council document, the Pastoral Constitution of the Church in the Modern World, they stated that conscience is a "law written by God. To obey it is the very dignity of man; according to it he will be judged."
71
Why does Vincent MacNamara argue that it is misleading to describe conscience as a voice?
Because this makes it sound like a special faculty or piece of equipment which human beings possess,a separate thing inside the individual.
72
How did Vincent MacNamara say we should see conscience?
In terms of an attitude or an awareness people have that there is a moral path to be followed through life and that true human living does not revolve around profit and pleasure. He argues that the fact that people see goodness and truth are important is another way of describing conscience.
73
What quote does Vincent MacNamara use to describe conscience?
"It is not so much that I have a conscience- a special piece of equipment- as that I am a conscience. That is how I am, that is how I find myself. That is a basic truth about life."
74
What does Richard Gula argue is a misleading way to consider conscience?
He argues that to consider conscience in terms of a series of laws, even a series of internal laws, is also misleading.
75
What two key terms does Richard Gula highlight in respect to conscience?
Vision and Choice.
76
What does Richard Gula view conscience as?
The ability to act, within a learned framework, through the needs of a Christian community and developed within a Christian understanding. The varies communities which form our way of seeing the world also determine the way our conscience works. Therefore conscience is a way of 'seeing' and then responding, through the voices we make, to the world in which we live.
77
How do both Vincent MacNama and Richard Gula approach conscience?
They both focus on a holistic approach to conscience.
78
What down Vernon Ruland try to find a via media between?
Between rationalism and uncritical divine comman theory.
79
What does Vernon Ruland see moral decisions as?
As reflecting an 'ethics of loyal scrutiny' enriched by many sources of moral and religious wisom.
80
What does Vernon Ruland see conscience as?
He says conscience is less the 'voice of God' and more our interpretation of that 'voice.'
81
How does Vernon Ruland see God's role in conscience?
He explains that the God invoked in our conscience is not the exclusive property of Christians and points out that there are many interlinked sources of what he calls the ways of religious wisdom.
82
What does Timothy O' Connell see conscience as?
He views it as having three aspects or levels.
83
What are the three aspects or levels of conscience that Timothy O'Connell suggests?
1. Our general sense of personal responsibility for who we are and what we become
2. Our sense of obligation to search out the good, using all the resources of moral reasoning available to us, including the assistance of a moral community such as a Church. On this level people can disagree and wrong judgements can be made.
3. The concrete judgement a person makes so that good as he sees it must be done. On this level conscience is infallible and must be followed.
84
How does Timothy O'Connell say that moral values are discovered?
By moral reasoning and are imposed by neither external nor internal law, but are discovered by historical human experience of the consequences of action for human fulfilment.
85
What do both Daniel Maguire and Timothy O'Connell agree on?
They both see conscience as based on more than human reason; it is also based on the shared experience of the past, the shared experience of a culture and the personal experience and affectivity.
86
What point does Daniel Maguire add on to Timothy O'Connell's view of conscience?
He adds that in discerning what is the correct moral choice we also need to consider the place of creative imagination, humour and the tragic experience of life, especially great loss, as these open us up to new perceptions of value.
87
What questions do we need to ask when considering conscience as a moral guide?
1. What authority or status should be given to individual conscience in moral decision-making?
2. How is a person's conscience formed so that it might be a good basis for making moral choices?
88
What authority as a moral guide is conscience given within the Christian tradition?
Conscience is given overriding importance in moral decision-making. Conscience must always be followed; a person is obliged to act in accordance with the dictates of conscience.
89
What authority did Aquinas give to conscience as a moral guide?
He gives considerable weight to the role of conscience. He believed that not following the dictates of conscience was always wrong, because by not following it a person was ignoring what he believed to be true. He believed conscience was a deep sense of right and wrong which came from God. Following one's conscience was like following the law of God and, even when conscience was mistaken, Aquinas believed that a person had a duty to follow it.
90
Why might conscience not be a reliable moral guide?
It is sometimes possible to be mistaken about what is the right thing to do For example, many people believe a particular course of action to be right at one time in their lives and then change their mind about that action at a later stage.
91
What did Aquinas argue was everyone's duty?
He argued that it is the duty of everyone to inform and educate their conscience.
92
What does following your conscience mean according to Aquinas?
Acting according to conscience is not a guarantee that a person is doing what is right; it ensures only that they will be morally blameless.
93
What are the problems with conscience?
- If it is the voice of God, then we should never make mistakes in moral judgements
- if it's the voice of God, it should be clear on what the right course of action is, but even Christian denominations disagree on moral matters
- Atheists claim that conscience is important to them; it is a universal part of human moral living and need have no relation to God
94
How could it be argued that conscience is the voice of God?
Some might say that God does speak to us, but that was have not built up a sufficiently sensitive conscience to hear God's voice clearly- it is our own fault we error, not God's.
95
What quote does Enda McDonarge say about conscience?
"Conscience enables us to judge good and evil, reproaches us when we have done wrong, gives us peace when we are done well."
96
What quote does Jack Mahoney use about conscience?
"And perhaps a little demythologising may be in order, for conscience is not a still small voice, not bells, nor a blind stab in the dark; it is simply me coming to a decision. When I say 'my conscience tells me' all I am really saying is 'i think'.
97
What two things does conscience require to work successfully?
Freedom and knowledge of the good.
98
Is conscience innate or acquired?
It implies an innate sense of what 'good' is, but if it was innate we would expect everyone to have a conscience and for it to work more or less the same for everyone, but this is not the case. It could therefore be argued that it is acquired, as Freud and other psychologists suggest. But, the skill may be innate but the moral principles that guide it may be acquired.
99
What weight do Christians give the role of conscience and why?
It is given overriding importance in moral decision-making, and must always be followed because they consider the conscience to be the voice of God so its authority is absolute.
100
Why does Aquinas think that we should follow our conscience even if it is wrong?
Because we have a duty to do so, and it ensured we will be morally blameless.
101
How does Freud argue that the super-ego and ego is formed?
Behaving instinctively is often contrary to the interests of the community. Because of this, people frown upon certain types of behaviour. Instinctive desires are suppressed from an early age, and individuals develop an ego with which to interact with society. Society's disapproval of 'inappropriate' behaviour is internalised by the super-ego.
102
What does the super-ego divide into?
The conscience and the ego-ideal
103
What is the ego-ideal of the super-ego?
This represents the rewarding parent- it gives rise to feelings of pride and satisfaction.
104
What is the conscience of the super-ego?
This represents the punishing parent- it causes feelings of guilt and discomfort for immoral acts.
105
why have some discredited Freud's analysis of human behaviour?
It is often seem to be discredited by his florid account of the effects of sexuality on the psychological development of human beings.
106
What did Freud believe the human psyche was inspired by?
By powerful instinctive desires that had to be satisfied.
107
What does the ego do according to Freud?
Humans create the ego which takes into account the realities of the world and society.
108
What does the super-ego do according to Freud?
A super-ego internalises and reflects anger and disapproval of others and this creates a guilty conscience, which grows into a life and power of its own irrespective of rational thought and reflection of the individual.
109
How have psychologists since amended Freud's theory?
They talk of a mature and immature conscience.
110
What do psychologists that have amended Freud's theory mean by the term immature conscience?
The immature conscience (super-ego) looks to and identifies with early feelings of guilt which may have been put there at a pre-rational stage by parents, school, etc. rather than looking to see what is right and what is wrong, it seeks to gain approval.
111
What do psychologists that have amended Freud's theory mean by the term mature conscience?
The mature conscience (ego) is a healthy conscience that reflects and to see what is right and wrong, it looks out to the world. It is an expression of an individual search for self-fulfillment,. It claims autonomy over social pressures, so will not fit into the crowd just for the sake of it.
112
What is the ego?
The conscious self, which is seen by the outside world.
113
What is the super-ego?
A set of moral codes given to us by external sources, which are internalised and reinforce ideas of correct behaviour implanted in us when we were young.
114
Where does our synderesis come from according to Aquinas?
God
115
What does our synderesis allow us to do?
To know good from evil, to discover rationally and not instinctively. It is the same in every single human being.
116
What does the conscientia do?
This is the act applying the synderesis. It depends on all sorts of different influences. It can make mistakes and it almost certainly fails to work in some people.
117
What does Aquinas say conscience depends on?
On upbringing. He talks of the concepts of proper family and upbringing.
118
What does Aquinas argue that a proper response to upbringing presupposes?
- Ability to grasp fundamental moral principles
- Ability to infer specific moral precepts from these principles
- Ability to apply these precepts to individual actions
119
What is the area between synderesis and conscientia?
Prudence (wisdom)
120
What does Aquinas say the role of prudence is?
To seek counsel, listen to experience, weight up the circumstances and consequences and come to a decision.
121
How does Aquinas think a conscience can mature and develop?
This is achieved through engaging in relationships by living a Christian life. This will develop a mature person.
122
What does Aquinas claim making moral decisions is?
A virtue that has to be acquired.
123
What does Aquinas claim removes our freedom?
Fear. (this could criticise Freud's approach)
124
What does Tim O'Connell argue about conscience?
That we all have synderesis: we all have the voice of God, an innate ability to be self moving morally. But it is how we educate the formation of our conscience that will determine whether our conscience is right or wrong.
125
How does Tim O'Connell argue we educate the formation of our conscience?
In an on-going process of reflection, discernment, discussion and analysis.
126
What does whether our conscience guides us in the right direction depend on?
How sound our influences are.
127
Whose theory does the Roman Catholic Church accept?
Thomas Aquinas' account of the conscience as the voice of reason.
128
What did Aquinas argue that following the conscience did?
He argued that following the conscience could never lead to immorality so long as the conscience was properly informed. Ignorance was no excuse, and an individual acting immorally out of ignorance was responsible for their actions.
129
What did John Henry Newman argue about conscience?
He adopted a more intuitionist view of the conscience. He believed that the conscience was the voice of God, informing the individual's moral decision making. Since the conscience is the voice of God, following the promptings of the conscience is following the laws of God.
130
What did Jean Piaget say moral development depends on?
A child's moral development occurs in stages through time, and moral reasoning is dependent on the stage of underlying cognitive development.
131
What two stages of moral development did Piaget suggest?
1. Heteronomous morality
| 2. Authonomous morality
132
What is Piaget's heteronomous morality?
It is the type of moral awareness demonstrated by children aged 5-10. Children demonstrating this level of moral development look beyond themselves for moral guidance. They tend to see rules as inflexible, and expect immediate punishment when they break a rule. An act is seen as immoral through its observable consequence.
133
What is Piaget's autonomous morality?
This is the type of moral awareness demonstrated by children aged 10+. Children demonstrating this level of moral development develop their own set of rules. They begin to understand the nature of rule-making as a social construction for the benefit of all.
134
How do the morality of adults operate according to Jean Piaget?
Adults can operate with a mixture of the two stages (heteronomous and autonomous morality)- the move towards the second stage is usually observed when the child is less dependent on others for moral authority.
135
How do people progress through the stages that Kohlberg suggested?
Stages cannot be skipped; each provides a new and necessary perspective, more comprehensive and differentiated than its predecessors but integrated with them. The understanding gained in each stage is retained in later stages, but may be regarded by those in later stages as simplistic, and lacking in sufficient attention to detail.
136
What three levels are Kohlberg's six stages divided into?
```
Level 1 (pre-conventional)
Level 2 (conventional)
Level 3 (post-conventional)
```
137
What are Kohlberg's six stages?
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
2. Self-interest orientation
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles
138
What two stages are in the pre-conventional level for Kohlberg?
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
(how can I avoid punishment?)
2. Self-interest orientation
(what's in it for me?)
139
What two stages are in the conventional level for Kohlberg?
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
(social norms) (the good person attitude)
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
(Law and order morality)
140
What two stages are in the post-conventional level for Kohlberg?
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles
(principled conscience)
141
What is Kohlberg's pre-conventional level of morality?
Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an act by its direct consequences. it is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner. A child with this morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.
142
What is kohlberg's stage one morality (obedience and punishment driven)?
Individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions on themselves. An action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished. The worse the punishment, the more 'bad' the act is perceived to be. It is egocentric, lacking recognition that others' points of view are different from one's own.
143
What is Kohlberg's stage two morality (self-interest driven)?
right behaviour is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interests but understood in a narrow way which does not consider one's reputation or relationships to groups of people. It has limited interest in the needs of others, only so far where it might further the individuals own interests.
144
What is Kohlberg's conventional level of morality?
They judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and expectations. It is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong. An individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. A rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
145
What is Kohlberg's stage three morality (good intentions as determined by social consensus)?
The self enters society by conforming to social standards. Individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society's views. They try to live up to expectations, having learned that being regarded as good benefits the self. They may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of a person's relationships, which now include things like respect, gratitude and the 'golden rule.'
146
What is Kohlberg's stage four morality (authority and social order obedience driven)?
It is important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society. It is beyond the need for individual approval shown in stage three. A central idea or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong. There is a duty to uphold laws and rules. Culpability is a significant factor.
147
What is Kohlberg's post-conventional level (principled level) of morality?
It is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society, and that the individual's own perspective may take precedence over society's views; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own ethical principles. They view rules as useful but changeable, as they elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions.
148
What is Kohlberg's stage five (social contract driven) morality?
The world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights and values. Such perspective should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather that rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary through majority decision and inevitable compromise.
149
What is Kohlberg's stage six (universal ethical principles driven) morality?
Moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only insofar they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Legal rights are unnecessary, as social contracts are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are reached categorically in a absolute way (like Kant), and an action is never a means but always an end in itself; an action is taken because it is right, not because it avoids punishment is in their best interests, expected, legal, or previously agreed upon.
150
What word does St Paul use for conscience and what does this mean?
He uses the Greek word syneidesis, which is often translated to conscience or heart but in Greek means "to know with." He uses it to explain the human ability to know and choose what is good and seems to suggest a moral consciousness that compares an action to a standard, For him conscience seems to show someone's reaction to a past action that does not meet this standard and should be obeyed in the future.
151
What does 1 Corinthians say about conscience?
"When you thus sin against members of your family, and wound their conscience when it is weak, you sin against Christ."
152
What did St Jerome think conscience was? (Christian thought)
He thought that conscience was intuitive and defined syneidesis as 'gleams (or sparks) of conscience by which we discern that we sin."
153
How did St Jerome influence Christina thinking on conscience?
When he translated the New Testament from Greek to Latin and used the word conscientia. In the Greek testament, the term syneidesis is used, a broadly inclusive term which anticipates conscientia in its suggestion of mutual knowing. By translating syneidesis as conscientia, he was using a term that at the time included the idea of private ethical discernment with public expectation. This meant that from very early on the Christian conscience was seen as serving both the individual and the teachings of the Church.
154
How did St Augustine of Hippo understand conscience?
As the voice of God speaking to the individual in solitary moments, bringing us closer to God and as a tool that helps us to observe God's laws.
155
How did Augustine think a person could become virtuous?
He believed that humans have an innate capacity to know the difference between right and wrong. Every person has a conscience, but he believed this was not enough to make a person virtuous God's grace is needed as well as conscience.
156
What three ideas did Augustine's idea of conscience rest on?
1. God implants knowledge of right conduct in humans and this can be known through conscience
2. A person cannot act (as opposed to knowing what is right) without the grace of God.
3. The motive also has to be right- this is to draw close to God. So, for example, only good acts, such as giving money to charity, where the motive was love of God, were praiseworthy moral acts.
157
How important did Augustine consider conscience?
He made conscience the most important element of moral decision-making, and followers of Augustine have often argued that the conscience is more important than the moral teachings of the Church.To the point that they have rejected biblical teaching in favour of their conscience (Martin Luther King, and William Wilberforce)
158
Why is Augustine's view of conscience problematic?
It cannot be questioned, as it is the voice of God within, which many find hard to accept, especially when it goes against the teachings of the Church, and it is not possible to verify whether it is God's voice or self-delusion. It also raises the issue of a God who contradicts himself, as people's consciences point them in different directions.
159
What did Thomas Aquinas see conscience as?
The natural ability of people to understand the difference between right and wrong. He believed that all people aim for what is good and try to avoid bad,a nd he called this the synderesis rule and reckoned it was innate to seek good.
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What did Aquinas view sin as?
Falling short of God's ideals, by seeking what people think is good and is actually bad because these people are not using their powers of reason properly.
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What could cause conscience to be wrong according to Aquinas?
It could be mistaken because of a factual mistake where the individual did not know that a general rule applied to a particular situation, and so that individual is not responsible for the wrongdoing. However, when a mistake is due to ignorance of a rule that the individual should have known, then the individual is responsible. The conscience could err 'invincibly, but not deliberately.
162
What does F.C. Copleston suggest about conscience?
He argues that we use our emotions when making moral choices.
163
Where does Butler think conscience comes from?
He believed conscience was a person's God-given guide to right conduct and its demands must therefore always be followed.
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What did John Newman think a person was doing when following their conscience?
That they were simultaneously, in some mysterious way, following a divine law.
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What did Newman view conscience as?
Conscience is a 'messenger' of God and it is God speaking to us when we feel this intuitive moral knowledge and make decisions.
166
Why did Newman not think the conscience is the result of reason?
He saw conscience as an innate ability implanted in us before we had the ability to reason.
167
Who do Newman think had more authority, the conscience of the church?
He believed that conscience could even supersede the Pope, the infallible head of the Catholic Church, but only after serious reflection which may then show that we are not listening to our conscience properly.
168
What quote does Newman use to explain his view of conscience?
"Conscience is not a long-sighted selfishness nor a desire to be consistent with oneself; but it is a messenger from Him, who both in nature and in grace, speaks to us behind a veil, and teachers and rules us by His representatives. Conscience is the aboriginal Vicar of Christ."
169
Why does Newman not see conscience as necessarily being against the Church?
This idea of messenger does not set conscience up against the teaching of the Church in Newman's eyes, but if the message is unpalatable, or difficult we cannot reinvent it to make it easier, but study it, examine it, and try to understand it, especially if we do not agree with it.It does not give us an easy way out of ignoring Church teachings.
170
What does Newman recommend we should do?
That we should kneel and pray that God "will lead our weak steps and enlighten our fragile minds."
171
What did Newman think there was a distinction between?
Between the authority of the Pope, said to be infallible, though Newman questioned this, who gave general propositions and the authority of the conscience.
172
What quote does Newman use about conscience and the pope?
"To conscience first, and the pope afterwards."
173
What does Newman see as God's role in conscience?
He began with God,and said "God has attributes of justice, truth, wisdom and mercy." God implanted the law "which is himself" in the minds of people- "This law, as appreciated in the minds of individual men is called conscience."
174
How does Richard Dawkins view conscience?
He believes that we have self-promoting genes or selfish genes that are programmed for survival. However, we also have evolved an altruistic (concern for others) gene as part of this survival strategy. Our ancestors found that co-operation is often more successful than competition. Dawkins calls this a "lust to be nice", and says "we have the capacity to transcend our selfish genes.
175
How is Dawkins' view of conscience similar to Butler and Newman?
Dawkins argues that goodness is innate to humans as we have evolved an innate sense of right and wrong, just as Butler and Newman did- it is just the source that is different.
176
What quote does Enda Mcdonagh use about conscience?
"Conscience enables us to judge good and evil, reproaches us when we have done wrong, gives us peach when we have done well."
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What does Enda Mcdonagh seem to suggest about conscience?
That although it is a deep part of us, it appears to exist simultaneously as a separate entity, often standing over and against us as a judge or a supporter.
