Contemporary urban environments Flashcards
(140 cards)
1
Q
What is urbanisation?
A
The growth in the proportion of a country living in urban areas
2
Q
What evidence is there that rates of urbanisation has changed?
A
-In the uk 85% live in urban areas.
-In 2010, urban population surpassed 50%
-By 2030, 6/10 people will live in a city.
3
Q
What is urban growth?
A
The increase in population in a town or city
4
Q
What is urban expansion?
A
The increase in size or geographical footprint of a city.
5
Q
Describe the global patterns of urbanisation since 1945:
A
-55% of people currently live in urban areas, a 25% increase from 1950.
-Since 1950, urban population has increased from 750 million to 4.2 billion.
6
Q
Explain the importance of urban areas in human affairs
A
-Organisation of economic production/financial services.
-Exchange of ideas and creative thinking (universities).
-Social and cultural centres e.g. theatre, stadiums.
-Centres of political power
7
Q
What social processes are associated with urban growth?
A
Better living standards
Cultural expression - museums, galleries.
Migration - increases mixing of people from various backgrounds.
8
Q
What political processes are associated with urban growth?
A
-Inequalities between rich and poor can occur.
-New working class occurs
-New political movements and reforms arise to represent new working class.
9
Q
What demographic processes are associated with urban growth?
A
-Cities become larger and wealthier which attracts migrants - increases cultural diversity.
-Young people are attracted to jobs and entertainment and to raise families.
10
Q
What technological processes are associated with urban growth?
A
-Urban areas become hotspots for technological advancements.
-E.g. (industrial) Manchester became the first industrialised city with cotton processing factories.
-More recently, areas with high tech industries are common e.g. silicon valley. - Attracts people because of highly paid jobs.
11
Q
What economic processes are associated with urban growth?
A
-Cities attract people as they offer more, better paid jobs.
-As populations increase, businesses grow and become more profitable, jobs and wages rise.
-As countries develop, commercial farming overtakes subsistence - decline in agriculture drives people towards cities.
12
Q
Why do people chose to move to cities?
A
Push factors: lack of jobs, wars, natural disasters, disease + inadequate healthcare.
Pull factors: Employment, earning from informal sector, better social provisions, better quality of life.
13
Q
What are some key consequences of urbanisation with examples?
A
-Urban sprawl: Causes decentralisation.
-Shortage of housing in LICs: In 2017 - 900mill lived in slums.
-Unemployment
-Transport issues
-Lack of urban services and waste disposal: In India old pipeline infrastructure means there are large areas of sewage.
-Shortage of affordable housing: In London, house prices increased by 70% between 2010 and 2019.
14
Q
What is the urbanisation rate comparison between richer and poorer countries since 1950?
A
The rate has been twice as great in poorer countries than in richer countries
This indicates a significant demographic shift towards urban living in developing regions.
15
Q
What is suburbanisation + example?
A
The outward growth of urban development where people move to the suburbs.
Usually occurs when wealthier people move away from the central city for a better quality of life.
E.g. In Liverpool, ship owners and businesses didn’t want to reside in the centre, but that left lower income people in the centre where the Qol was lower.
16
Q
What are some causes of suburbanisation?
A
Increasing population
Poorer people move in
Suburbs have less pollution and crime
Advances in technology mean people can commute
17
Q
What are some effects of suburbanisation?
A
Can lead to inner city areas becoming deprived, and create social segregation between poorer communities in city centre and wealthier communities in suburbs.
18
Q
What is counter-urbanisation?
A
When large numbers of people move from urban areas into surrounding countryside or rural areas
19
Q
What are causes of counter-urbanisation?
A
-Less air pollution and crime in rural areas.
-Improvements in technology means that people can work at home.
-Rise in demand for second homes and early retirement.
20
Q
What are some effects of counter-urbanisation?
A
-Tension between locals and newcomers.
-Modern housing estates built on edge of small settlements.
-Local services close down.
21
Q
What is urban resurgence + example?
A
Regeneration of an urban area which has suffered a period of decline.
E.g. Birmingham: 1900s = 20,000 ppl employed. Foreign competition + blitz = reduce demand. Decline continued until 2000s when large-scale improvements (warehouses converted into apartments, hub for young businesses).
22
Q
What are causes of urban resurgence?
A
-Government led regeneration schemes.
-Re-development from private companies.
-Globalisation and technological change.
-Large sporting events (olympic park)
23
Q
What are effects of urban resurgence?
A
population revival
prosperous economy
multiplier effect is encouraged
younger population
24
Q
What is deindustrialisation?
A
The decline of industry within an area, with a loss of jobs in industry employment.
25
Why did deindustrialisation occur in England + examples
In the 1960's, developing nations e.g. Singapore + Taiwan became industrialised. These countries could produce goods for a cheaper price due to low labour costs. By 1970's, the developed world was struggling to compete - industries fell. E.g. Steel in Sheffield, Textiles in Manchester, Ship building in Glasgow. Lead to unemployment and poverty.
26
What are some impacts of deindustrialisation?
-Loss of jobs and disposable income, more businesses close, more unemployment and derelict buildings.
-High levels of crime, decline of property prices.
-Loss of tax - overall less invested in economy.
27
What is the rise of the service economy + example?
A service economy is one where the dominant source of economic growth is through providing services rather than goods.
During the 1980s, many service industries began to expand and dominate western economies, these industries have been responsible for the majority of economic growth in developed countries.
28
What are the drivers of the tertiary sector expansion in a service economy?
-Rising affluence: Services have grown to support the rising disposable incomes that will be spent on service e.g. leisure.
-Technological change: Technology has enabled businesses to expand without the barriers of geographical proximity through transport and communication.
29
What is decentralisation?
Process of urban developments away from the city centre such as retail parks. E.g. Meadowhall near Sheffield.
30
What are some impacts of decentralisation?
Causes city centre shops and offices to close - this has led to buildings being abandoned, job losses and urban poverty.
31
Define megacities.
Metropolitan areas with a total population greater than ten million people
Projected that there will be 43 megacities by 2030.
32
How do megacities contribute to the economy?
The large workforce allows for rapid economic growth
33
What are world cities?
Cities that have significant political influence on a global scale and are defined on their importance in global affairs e.g. London, New York.
34
What is urban policy?
Strategies chosen by local or central government to manage the development of urban areas and reduce urban problems.
35
What was the aim of urban development corporations and when were they introduced?
1979
Used private sector funding to restore derelict areas.
-Aimed to attract new businesses, improve local environment, create jobs and build new houses.
-First UDCs established in the London Docklands and Liverpool.
36
What changes were made by the UDC in the London Docklands?
-Built 24,000 new homes
-Created 85,000 jobs
-Built new schools, parks, facilities e.g. watersports centre, Surrey Quays shopping centre.
37
Why was the UDC in the London Docklands criticised?
Didn't tackle social problems e.g. affordable housing and suitable jobs, and locals felt they had little input.
38
What was the aim of enterprise zones and when were they introduced?
1981
Established in areas with high unemployment.
-Aimed to attract new businesses to the area to create jobs by removing obstacles faced by businesses.
39
What incentives were offered to businesses in enterprise zones?
-Reducing tax on corporations and land.
-Simplified planning procedures.
40
What is a strength of enterprise zones?
By 1990, EZs housed 5000 companies, employing more than 125,000 people.
41
What is a criticism of enterprise zones?
Tax reductions encouraged existing companies to move their premises and staff to EZs, limiting the number of new jobs created.
42
Describe the incentives and outcome of enterprise zone in Isle of Dogs Canary Wharf (London)
Declared and EZ in 1982
Incentives:
-Freedom from local rates for 10 years.
-No development land tax
-Simplified planning procedures.
Outcomes:
-Investment led to new transport initiatives (London city airport)
-Extension of jubilee line.
43
What was the aim of city challenge and when was it introduced?
1991-1997
Local authorities competed for government funding to regenerate deprived areas.
Funding was used to improve housing, provide vocational training, and create jobs.
44
What is a strength of city challenge?
By 1997 over 50,000 jobs had been created and 40,000 huses had been improved.
45
What is a criticism of city challenge?
Many deprived areas who were unsuccessful in the competition never received funding.
46
What was the aim of New deal for communities and when was it introduced?
2000s
Government worked with private companies to provide financial support and expertise for regeneration over a 10-year scheme in the 39 most deprived areas.
47
What is a strength of new deal for communitiews?
Between 2002-2008, places saw an improvement in 32/36 of core indicators.
48
What is urban form?
The physical characteristics of built up areas (shape, size, density of buildings). Can be considered from street level to country level.
49
How can urban form be determined by physical factors?
-Topography = Steeper slopes are harder to build on, large flat areas encourage development.
-Presence of water = Presence of lakes and seas limits urban growth, whilst cities grow along rivers.
-Natural resources = Rich resources encourage growth.
-Land type = Some ground surfaces are harder and more expensive to build on.
50
How can urban form be determined by human factors?
-Population = Increased migration is hard to predict and manage, can lead to lack of housing.
-Environment = Suitability for sewage or water treatment works.
-Economy = Movement of industry to urban areas, people follow.
-Technology = Data processing hubs, high speed internet access.
-Policies = Role of local, regional, national government policies in planning and transport.
51
Explain how cities are ranked
Alpha ++ = More integrated than all other cities and constitutes own high level of integration. (London, NYC).
Alpha + = Other highly integrated cities that complement Alpha ++ cities, fill service needs for pacific Asia.
Alpha cities = Very important world cities that link major economic regions.
Beta cities = Important world cities that link their region or state into the world economy e.g. Copenhagen, Lisbon.
52
What are some characterstics of megacitities
urban sprawl, multi-functional infrastructure, high quality educational centres, headquarters of multinational corporations.
53
What are the main challenges faced by megacities?
Strained infrastructure for public transportation, healthcare, and education
## Footnote
High population density often overwhelms existing facilities.
54
What does the Burgess Model (concentric zone model) describe?
The spatial patterns of land use in urban areas
## Footnote
It outlines different zones within a city, from the CBD to the rural-urban fringe.
55
What is the Central Business District (CBD)?
The center of the city where commercial businesses and international exchanges occur
## Footnote
This area is typically characterized by high land values and dense development.
56
What is urban morphology?
Spatial structure and organisation of an urban area.
57
What physical factors can influence urban morphology?
Relief and drainage + flat land (power & transportation)
58
What human factors can influence urban morphology?
Land value - highest value land is traditionally in the city centre where accesibility is greatest.
59
What are town centre mixed developments?
-Areas where land use is mixed - luxury flats, offices, shops and entertainment are all located there so residential, commercial and leisure uses are combined.
60
What is a heritage quarter?
Focuses on the historical and cultural uniqueness of an area, home to theatres, galleries, historical buildings.
Example: Southampton's cultural quarter includes SeaCity museum which exhibits the city's maritime history.
61
What is gentrification?
Significant neighbourhood change, involving the improvement and upgrade of older properties in inner city areas, the movement out of low-income tenants and in flow of high income occupiers. e.g. Islington and Notting hill in London.
62
What are some causes of gentrification?
-Access to entertainment and services, and wanting to be close to work.
-Increasing costs and time of commuting.
-Attraction of large properties
-Cheaper properties for those who can afford to renovate.
63
What are some characteristics of gentrification?
-Demographic changes
-Rising house prices
-Land use changes
-Cultural changes
64
What are some impacts of gentrification?
| Positive & Negative
-Reduces stock of housing available to poorer households.
-Increased investment in property reduces run-down appearances.
-Social tensions
-Traditional local services aren't used by newcomers.
-Increased wealth boosts local revenue and economy.
-Social mixing increases.
65
What are fortress landscapes and what do they include?
Developmets designed for security, protection and exclusion. Ensures residents are protected and incorrect people are discouraged.
Include: Greater use of CCTV, railings and fencing, street lighting, speed bumps.
66
What is an example of a fortress landscape?
Re-development of housing in Greenhyse and Wythenshave in Manchester included more windows for natural surveillance, more fencing to create barriers, and recessed doorways were avoided.
67
What is a post-modern city?
Cities moving away from the uniformity of modernism through changes architecture and patterns of land use.
68
What are features of a post-modern city?
-Multiple centres with different purposes.
-Ethnically diverse
-Mixed architecture
-Planning prioritises the aesthetics of a city
-Focus on tertiary and quarternary industry
69
What is urban sprawl?
The expansion of urban areas into surrounding countryside
## Footnote
This can lead to overcrowding and loss of rural land.
70
What are edge cities?
Caused by urban sprawl, setllements on the edge of large urban areas.
Develop close to major roads or airports and are found in proximity to many services.
71
What is an example of an edge city?
Edge city in LA - core city (30km), metropolitan area (100km) with a population of 4 million.
72
What issues does economic inequality cause in urban areas
Political and social unrest e.g. rioting.
Rise in crime, drug use and violence.
Health problems (malnourishment)
73
What strategies are there to manage economic inequality in urban areas?
-Improving transport systems can make it easier for the urban poor to access jobs.
-Subsidising the construction of affordable housing can help less wealthy people to buy property.
-Introducing minimum wages.
74
What strategies are there to manage social and cultural inequality in urban areas?
-Governments can encourage political participation of minority groups e.g. by sending postcards and messages.
-Governments can pass laws preventing discrimination e.g. by companies to employees.
-New developments can include luxury homes and lower-cost housing, reducing divisions.
75
Describe social segregation and the issues it causes in urban areas
Social segregation is where different groups are separate from one another, or concentrated in one area. Caused by cultural diversity.
Issues:
-Prejudice and discrimination
-Less access to education and jobs for some groups
-Lead to anxiety, negative effects on life expectancy and health.
76
Describe cultural diversity and the issues it causes in urban areas
Cultural diversity can enrich a city's character and increase tolerance, attract tourists and boost local economy.
Issues:
-Tensions between groups, leading to violence.
-Increased pressure on services e.g. schools need more staff to encompass for languages.
-Minority communities feel isolated
77
What is multiculturalism?
A society that recognises, values and promotes the contributions of diverse cultural heritages of the various groups within it.
78
What is global monoculture?
Refers to the dominance of a single culture across all important sectors of the world
79
Describe some factors that influence cultural patterns in cities
-Historical migration trends: British empire, post WWII migration.
-Economic opportunities: London as a financial hub.
-Educational institutions
-Cultural: Multiculturalism and religious acceptance, immigration policies.
80
What is a microclimate?
Where there are small-scale variations in temperature, precipitation, humidity and evaporation.
81
What is a climatic dome?
Areas that have their own climate and weather e.g. urban microclimates.
82
What is the urban canopy?
Layer of air closest to the surface of the warm air over a city.
83
What are some social problems associated with urban areas?
Shortage of good quality housing, run-down CBDs, and traffic congestion
## Footnote
These issues require urban renewal schemes and development strategies.
84
What is the urban heat island effect?
Urban regions becoming warmer than their rural surroundings due to impermeable surfaces
## Footnote
This phenomenon results from the development of infrastructure, roads, and pavements.
85
What causes the UHI?
-Urban areas have lower albedo. Dark surfaces e.g. pavements and roofs absorb heat during the day and release it at night.
-Large expanses of glass and steel from buildings (skyscrapers) reflect heat into surrounding streets.
-Buildings leak heat due to poor insulation.
86
Why do urban areas experience more precipitation than rural?
Urban areas have 5-15% more precipitation due to more condensation nuclei. Heat island related convection promotes air to rise, cool below dew point and allow water vapour to condense.
87
Describe the strategies for managing UHI
-Cool surfaces: Combines a reflectve base coat with a darker pigment to reflect short-wave radiation. Could cool cities by 2 degrees.
-Green roofs: Reduces air humidity, reduces air pollution, reduces flooding.
-Urban greening: Trees act as carbon stores and can reduce urban flooding, provides shade and has a natural cooling effect.
88
# Fill in the blanks:
-Cities have _x more _ than rural areas.
-Cities have _x more _ ""
-Cities have _x more _ ""
-Cities have _ as much C02 ""
10 + nitrogen oxide
200 + sulphur dioxide
10 + hydrocarbons
Twice
89
What strategies have been implemented to manage air pollution?
-Legislation: After London 'pea-souper' of 1952, government decided legislation was needed. 1956 act introduced smoke-free zones into UKs urban areas. 1990s - tough regulations were imposed on levels of PM 10s.
-More public transport: e.g. Manchesters development of tram system metrolink, park and ride schemes.
-Vehicle control in inner urban areas: e.g. Athens declared an area of 2.5km in city centre traffic free.
90
Explain the catchment characteristics of urban areas
Urban catchment is dominated by surface runoff
-Warmer air in cities holds more moisture
-Dust and pollution make more condensation nuclei
-Less vegetation = Less evapotranspiration
-Less vegetation = Less interception
91
How does urbanisation alter the storage of a drainage basin?
-Reservoirs, lakes, ponds are permanent stores, but vulnerable to evaporation.
-Interception storage is reduced owing to impermeable structures such as buildings replacing vegetation.
-Dredging, embanking, channelisation increase the storage capacity or urban rivers, which are primarily the exit for water transferred through the drainage basin.
92
-Central urban areas have _ evaporation compared to rural areas at _.
-Central urban areas have _ runoff compared to rural areas at _.
-30%
-40%
-55%
-10%
93
What are some hard engineering strategies for urban drainage management?
-River straightening
-Natural levees
-Embankments (raised riverbanks using concrete/rocks/stone etc).
-Diversion spillways (flood relief channels)
-River channelisation
94
What are some soft engineering strategies for urban drainage management?
-Afforestation
-Riverbank conservation
-Floodplain zoning
-River restoration
95
What are SUDS?
Environmentally friendly replications of natural drainage systems in the built environment.
96
Describe some SUDS
-Retention basin - gravel filled filtration layers between reed beds and other wetland habitats.
-Permeable pavements - Use of porous block paving and concrete.
-Infiltration ditch - Gravel filled drains and filter strips.
-Swale - Wide, shallow drainage channels that are normally dry.
-Kerb inlets - Collect surface water runoff from roadways and direct it into underground drainage systems.
97
Describe permeable pavements and their advantages and disadvantages
-Permeable pavements (run-off flows through porous pavements and then infiltrates into the ground).
Advantages: Reduced peak flows to water course reduces the risk of flooding downstream, reduces need for excavated drainage.
Disadvantages: Can't be used where sediment loads may be washed onto the surface, risk of long-term clogginf or weed growth.
98
Describe retention basins and their advantages and disadvantages
-Runoff from each rain event is detained and treated in the pool.
Advantages: Good removal capability of urban pollutants, May add value to local properties.
Disadvantages: No reduction in runoff volume, may not be suitable for steep sites due to requirements for embankments.
99
Describe green roofs and their advantages and disadvantages
-Multi-layered system covers roof in vegetation, consists of an impermeable growing medium and a drainage layer.
Advantages: Improves air quality, no additional land take, insulates buildings.
Disadvantages: Expensive, maintenance required, not appropriate for steep roofs.
100
Describe detention basins and their advantages and disadvantages
-surface storage basins that provide flow control and facilitate some settling of particle pollutants.
Advantages: Simple to design and construct, easy to maintain.
Disadvantages: Little reduction of volume, detention depths, may be costrained.
101
What are some overall advantages and disadvantages of SUDS?
+:
-Improved air quality: Green roofs - reduce impacts of UHI.
-Enhanced biodiversity: Green roofs - builds ecosystems (insects).
-Recreation opportunities: When detention basins are dry they can function as recreation space for the community.
-:
-Flood risk management: Retention basins - no reduction in runoff volume - not suitable for steep areas.
-Swales, ponds, basins can pose a hazard to children.
102
-Waste is estimated to account for _ of total GHG emissions
-Methane from landfills represents _ of total methane emissions.
-How much does global waste increase by each year.
-5%
-12%
-7%
103
Describe the estimated sources of global waste
-Main source = Construction + demolition (30%).
-Next largest = Mining and quarrying (23%).
-Manufacturing and Municipal solid waste have a combined % of 40%
104
Decribe 3 sources/types of urban waste and the issues with them:
-**Ashes** from houses and small industrial establishments consist of a fine powdery residue, often with small pieces of metal or glass - When produced in large quantities these are classified as industrial wastes.
-**Bulky wastes** include domestic furniture, commercial packing and containers, industrial pallets - require special collection (expensive).
-**Street sweeping waste** including paper, cardboard, plastic, dirt, dust, leaves - mixed nature of this waste usually makes separation of biodegradable, recyclabale or inert (construction waste) uneconomic.
105
What is a waste stream?
Complete flow of waste from its source to final disposal.
106
What impacts do Cairo face from disposing 50,000 tonnes of waste annually?
Loss of recyclable resources, loss of potential resources (potential energy from controlled incineration), contamination of water and land, risk to human health.
107
What are the impacts of waste in Manila, Philippines?
| Only 10% of waste is recycled or composted
-Payatas (largest landfill site - 6 mountains of rubbish 10m high) Now officially closed due to collapse in July 2000 killing 200 ppl.
-More than 80,000 slum dwellers live around Payatas - faced with stench and water contaminated with heavy metals.
-4000 waste-pickers face health issues e.g. typhoid, hepatitus, cholera.
108
What are some impacts of urban waste?
-Costs of collecting and treating are high - In LICs urban authorities can spend 20-50% of their budget on waste management.
-Waste is a large source of methan as well as causing pollution.
-Many authorities struggle to collect waste - 2012 world bank reported 30-60% solid waste in LICs is collected.
109
UN habitat 2009 states that respiratory infections are _x higher than in places with frequent waste management:
6
110
What is urban mining and what are it's positives and negatives?
Urban mining = Process of recovering compounds and elements from products building and waste which would otherwise be left in landfills.
+: Reduced quantities of disposed waste and return of materials to the economy.
-: Energy may be needed for material recovery from waste which leads to GHG emissions.
111
What is the Basel convention?
An international law which was introduced to prevent transbounding movement of hazardous waste but evidence suggests it still happens.
112
What is e-waste?
Discarded electrical devices.
Estimated that 50 mill tonnes are produced a year.
113
What are the impacts of e-waste in **Guiyu, China**?
-One of the worlds largest e-waste dump sites.
-Large quantities of pollutants, heavy metals (lead, mercury) are released into the air and water supplies.
-Locals suffer respiratory, digestive issues.
114
What are the advantages and disadvantages of landfills?
+:
-Easily managed
-Methane can be vented and used as a fuel.
-Cost-effective and relatively safe if managed well.
-Good use of abandonded quarries.
-:
-Attracts vermin, flies and birds.
-Wind blown material becomes litter.
-Produces methane
-Smells unpleasant.
115
What are the advantages and disadvantages of incineration?
+:
-Produces energy from burning MSW.
-Requres much less land than lanfill sites.
-Long life span.
-Safe disposal of hazardous waste e.g. medical.
-:
-Particulate emissions require managing.
-Chimney emissions can be toxic if not managed.
-Co2 emissions
116
What are the advantages and disadvantages of recycling?
+:
-Organic waste can be composted and sold.
-Less in landfill
-Wheelie bins are sanitary and safe.
-:
-Public collection sites create litter.
-Public separation of materials is inconvenient and prone to errors.
-Public recycling centres require safe, expansive operation.
117
What is the background context to waste disposal in Amsterdam including the dutch approach?
-Amsterdam has a growing population and little spare land, lack of space forced government to take action to reduce reliance on landfill.
Dutch apporach: Avoid creating waste in the first place, recover valuable raw materials, generate energy by incinerating, dump what's left.
118
Describe the landfill situation in Amsterdam
| landfill tax, landfill ban
-There were increasing objections from public due to smell, soil pollution and groundwater contamination.
-In 1995, gov introduced landfill tax for every tonne.
-Landfill ban covering 35 waste categories was introduced in 1995.
-Amount of waste sent to landfill decreased in late 1990s and early 2000s.
119
Describe waste to energy incineration in Amsterdam
-Created the **Afval Energie Bedrijif** incineration plant capable of producing **1 mill Mw/h** of electricity annually. Also creates heating for many communities.
-Annually **1.4 mill tonnes** are brought to the plant.
-64% of waste in plant is reused.
-Released gases are scrubbed, particles are removed and used in asphalt.
120
Describe atmospheric pollution in urban areas
-Most serious pollutants: Ozone, nitrogenous oxides, sulfuric oxides.
-Smog is created by reactions between Nox and volatile organic compounds, accelerated by high temps from UHI.
-Emissions from vehicles and industrial sites are the largest sources of Nox and VOCs.
121
# Managing atmospheric pollution in urban environments:
-Large shade trees reduce ambient temps by _
-_ canopy cover in car parks = _ less evaporative emissions.
3-5 degrees
50%
8%
122
Describe atmospheric pollution in **Dhaka, Bangladesh**:
-**400,000** new migrants arrive every year , city faces poverty, crime, congestion and political violence.
-Main sources of emissions: *2-stroke engines, auto-rickshaws, mini-trucks*. Estimated **90%** of Dhaka's vehicle are faulty and emit smoke far beyond the limit.
-Brick-making kilns account for 40% of Dhaka's fine particulate waste - causes 750 deaths a year.
In 2010, gov ordered shut down of kilns by July 2013, but faced much opposition and extended the deadline many times.
123
Describe London's congestion charge
-60,000 less vehicles enter zone everyday but congestion hasn't improved.
-Before charge in 2003, inner London journeys were delayed by 3.4 min/km, but in 2009 figures show 3.6min/km.
-However scheme brings in £1.2 bill a year.
-Created social and economic segregation.
124
Describe the bicycle scheme in Copenhagen
-62% of people in Copenhagen use bikes for daily transportation.
-In last 10 yrs, city's invested $300 mill into biking infrastructure.
-5x more bikes than cars in copenhagen.
125
Describe rapid bus transit in Curitiba
-200x less expensive than a subway and holds more people.
-In peak hours, buses arrive every 60 secs.
-Was built in less than 2 yrs after announced.
-2002 survey - 99.3% said they love the city.
126
What are some causes of water pollution?
-International dumping of hazardous waste.
-Air pollution leading to acid rain.
-Outflowing water from industries.
-Surface runoff from streets carrying oil and heavy metals from motor vehicles.
-Leachates from illegal dumping and poor quality landfills.
127
-_ people lack access to clean water around the globe.
-Water-borne diseases account for _ of infectious diseases.
1.2 billion
80%
128
List 3 ways water pollutants can impact people's health
-Heavy metals from industrial processes slow development, resulting in birth defects and may be carcinogenic.
-Suspended particles in freshwater reduce the quality of drinking water for humans.
-Spread of infectious diseases - risk of epidemics, pressure on LICs for medical services.
129
Explains what happens to waste water:
-Preliminary treatment - Removes large objects.
-Primary treatment - Settle larger suspended matter.
-Secondary treatment -Biologically treats waste
-Tertiary treatment - Specific pollutants treated.
130
Describe water pollution strategies and their limitations.
**Legislation, regulation, enforcement** - Worldwide anti-pollution agreements enforced with incentives. - encourages illegal waste management
**Education and awareness** - The more people that know about pollution, the more will avoid adding to the problem. - requires motivation from people.
**Improvements in sewage and wastewater processing** - however requires money.
**Appropriate technology** - E.g. Kanicki omniprocessor, aims to provide clean water to LICs. - requires money.
131
Describe the Thames Tideway Tunnel
-Cost £5 bill, ready in 2025.
-Upgrade for London's sewage as well as interceptor sewars constructed in victorian era.
-Take sewage to Becton sewage treatment works.
-Completed tunnel will be 25km long and 65m deep.
132
133
What is sustainable living?
Meeting the needs of today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
## Footnote
Sustainability encompasses environmental, social, and economic dimensions.
134
List the four pillars of sustainability.
* Natural
* Physical
* Social
* Economic
## Footnote
For a project to be sustainable, it must address all four pillars.
135
What is the purpose of Aik Saath?
To integrate people from all communities, faiths, and backgrounds to encourage conflict resolution and community cohesion
## Footnote
This charity addresses issues of gang violence and hate crime.
136
Fill in the blank: Urban areas often have a consumerist culture that does not promote _______.
sustainability
## Footnote
This attitude can hinder efforts to improve environmental conditions.
137
True or False: Urban areas can be made sustainable through effective waste management and public transport systems.
True
## Footnote
Sustainable urban development includes strategies for reducing waste and improving transport.
138
What happens to surfaces during urbanisation?
Permeable surfaces become impermeable and dry
## Footnote
This alteration affects water drainage and contributes to the urban heat island effect.
139
What is one method to combat urban pollution?
Water conservation and river restoration
## Footnote
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) can also help manage urban runoff.
140
What are the consequences of economic inequality in urban areas?
Social segregation and cultural diversity
## Footnote
These factors can lead to increased racism and hate crimes.
