Contemporary Urban Environments Flashcards
(157 cards)
1
Q
In 1945 how much of the world’s population lived in cities?
A
1/3
2
Q
Today, how much of the world’s population lives in cities?
A
60%
3
Q
What is the urban population percentage of Afghanistan?
A
26%
4
Q
What is the urban population percentage of Cuba?
A
77%
5
Q
What is the urban population percentage of Jamaica?
A
56%
6
Q
What is the urban population percentage of Japan?
A
92%
7
Q
What is the urban population percentage of Germany?
A
77%
8
Q
What is the urban population percentage of the UK?
A
85%
9
Q
What is Urban Growth?
A
The increase in the total population of a town or city
10
Q
What is Urbanisation?
A
The increase in the proportion of a population living in towns and cities
11
Q
What is Urban Expansion?
A
The increase in the size/geographical footprint of an urban area
12
Q
Why are HICs more urbanised than LICs?
A
- The economic structure of HICs means more jobs are located in cities. In LICs, farming is still a large employment sector
- HICs cities are more globalized, resulting in wealth, migration + population growth
- HICs urbanised centuries ago during the Industrial Revolution, meaning their urbanisation happened before the LICs/NEEs
13
Q
Why are Cities important?
A
- Cities concentrate human populations
- Cities agglomerate economic activity e.g. financial services
- Centers of art and culture eg. restaurants & theaters (Urban Culture Node)
- Most of the world’s decision-making is concentrated in cities through governments
14
Q
What is the Burgess Model (1925)?
A
15
Q
What is the Hoyt Model (1939)?
A
16
Q
When was the greatest period of urbanisation in London?
A
1820 - 1940s
17
Q
Why was urbanisation so great in London between 1820 - 1940s?
A
- Industrial Revolution
- Job opportunities (both in factory jobs and increasingly higher income eg. banking)
- Increased wealth (from trade and colonialism)
- Improved healthcare, education, housing, transport (tube 1863)
- Increased migration
- Social Reasons
- Family
18
Q
What is Suburbanisation?
A
The movement of people away from the city centre toward the outskirts (suburbs)
19
Q
What is Decentralisation?
A
When economic activity (eg. shopping centers, offices, industry) also move to the outskirts of a city
20
Q
Why did London suburbanise between 1940-1990s?
A
- Damage from WW2 bombing campaigns
- Increased car ownership
- Increased wealth
- Government incentives
- Improved transport infrastructure
- Desire for larger houses
- Quieter
- Deindustrialisation
21
Q
What was the New Towns Act - 1946?
A
- Construction of a number of new urban areas
- Eg. Stevenage, Crawley, Harlow, Milton Keynes
22
Q
What is Counter-urbanisation?
A
The movement of people out of urban areas into rural areas
23
Q
Why do people want to leave the city altogether?
Rural Pull factors
A
- Rural areas quieter
- Safer
- Internet
- Less traffic
- Increased higher income jobs in rural areas
24
Q
What is Urban resurgence?
A
Population movement from rural areas and suburbs back into urban areas, often as a result of urban redevelopment
25
Why has Urban resurgence happened in recent years?
- Studentification
- Large regeneration projects
- Rural too expensive
- Gentrification of urban areas
- Urban culture = desirable
- Many service industries do not require large amounts of space or equipment so can afford high rent in CBD
26
How many megacities were there in 1970?
3
27
How many megacities are there now (2018)?
31
28
Urbanisation in NEEs and LICs is...
Increasing
29
Urbanisation in HICs is...
Decreasing
30
What increase in urban population does the UN predict by 2030?
95%
31
How many Villages are in the UK?
6000
32
How many Towns are in the UK?
1000
33
How many Cities are in the UK?
77
34
Why are megacities increasingly located in LICs?
- LICs have significant rural / urban inequality
- Services are usually higher quality & more accessible in cities
- Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is concentrated in urban areas due to globalisation ∴ the highest rate of employment growth is in cities
- Megacity growth slowed in HICs due to increased suburban and counter-urbanisation
- They are seen as gateways to a new life - Represent opportunity
- As more people move there, families may move to join them
- Highest rates of population growth are in LDEs ∴ natural increase means that more of their populations will live in cities
35
What are world cities?
- Disproportionately important city in the global economy
- Product of economic and cultural globalisation
- Form nodes
36
How much did cities account for Britain's total exports in 2017?
64%
37
How much did it account for goods export?
52%
38
How much did it account for services export?
77%
39
How much of the world's ultra rich elites live in just 10 cities?
70%
40
What are agglomeration economies?
The idea that the presence of many people, services, industry and so on in a small area has productivity gains. For example, in densely populated areas/cities there are reduced costs for moving goods, labour can be pooled between different firms and ideas flow more quickly.
41
Why HIC World cities more likely to be economically successful even though they are not the most populated?
- Stronger governance
42
Why are LIC World Cities less successful?
- Weaker governance reduces attraction of FDI
- Less favorable
- Low skilled workers
- Legal + Trading conditions
- Lack or co-ordination in transport, administration and land-use reduces the productivity gains
- Lack of investment in infrastructure and technology
43
Where is Bengaluru?
South India
44
What is the population of Bengaluru?
14 Million
45
What has happened to Bengaluru's population since 2001?
Doubled
46
What was the population of Bengaluru in 1950?
750,000
47
How much has Bengaluru's population grown in the last year?
By 1 million (10.75%)
48
What is Bengaluru's annual GDP growth?
8.5%
49
What is the nickname of Bengaluru?
Silicon Valley of India
50
How much of Bengaluru's population live in slums?
9%
51
How has Political Processes helped grow Bengaluru?
- **1970s**, the government bought a parcel of land in south Bengaluru to be developed into an **'electronic city'**
- **Tech TNCs** began to move in during the 1990s, creating thousands of skilled jobs
- Tax policies and related financial and licensing laws attracted investment
- Government also invested in education, transport and housing to support the development
52
How has Economic Processes helped grow Bengaluru?
- India is one of the most important NEEs in the world, and has just become the most populous country in the world
- In some areas, India's economy is still agrarian and industrial - however cities like Bengaluru are leading the way in India's development into a new globalised economy
- The informal sector, and low-wage sectors, still provide significant support to Bengaluru's global businesses e.g. hospitality, clothes manufacture and transport
- Average wages are still only 10% of London
53
What are Fortress developments?
Gated community of the rich
54
How has Social Processes helped grow Bengaluru?
- Economic growth in Bengaluru has created social change
- Traditional 'lower caste' groups (Dalits) in India have been pushed out of city into slums. Many of the central areas are now occupied by the wealthy
- Fortress developments such as Indiranagar are appearing around the city too, to house middle class workers
- Despite growth, many still live in poverty around Bengaluru
55
How has Technological Processes helped grow Bengaluru?
- Both cause & effect of urban growth
- 200 engineering colleges and Unis have created highly-skilled workers, leading technological development
- This attracts high-tech businesses eg. banking & software
- Hub in India's high speed rail network & busy airport
- More globalisation, connecting it to other world cities through communication, media, migration and business
56
How has Demographic Processes helped grow Bengaluru?
- Much of Bengaluru's population growth is amongst younger people (Due to economic growth)
- Natural increase = the city is likely to grow for years to come
57
The built-up area of Bengaluru is now how many times larger than in the 1970s?
6
58
Since the 1970s how much has vegetation declined?
66%
59
Since the 1970s how much has water bodies declined?
74%
60
How is Bengaluru the 'Southern Hub'?
In a three way high speed rail intersection
61
What is decentralisation?
The movement of businesses away from the CBD and inner city towards the outskirts of a city
62
What are the causes of decentralisation?
- Increasing urban property costs
- Decline in the quality of inner city areas
- Increase in transport infrastructure and car ownership
- Importance of international travel
- Counter-urbanisation / deconcentration (more convenient for many workers)
- Custom-built business parks
- Better environment quality
63
In 1841 how much of the UK people worked in service industries?
1/3
64
Today how much of the UK people work in service industries?
80%
65
How much does services account for in the UK's GDP?
79%
66
How has urban change affected UK cities?
- Deindustrialisation has caused significant social, economic and environmental decline - especially on the inner city
- More car oriented
- Decline of 'high street': online competition & decentralisation
- Decentralisation causes 'clone towns'
- Rise of service economy has created new employment
- Gentrification
67
What is GIS?
Geographical Information System
- A computer program that is capable of collecting, analyzing and presenting geographical data, eg. map coordinates, aerial photos, numerical data, and written text
68
How can GIS be used?
- Weather forecasting
- GPS and navigation
- Hazard prediction, protection and planning
- Ecosystem mapping
- Urban planning
- Cartography
- etc.
69
What are the uses of GIS in Urban Planning?
- Zoning
- Transport Planning
- Waste Management
- Socio-Economic Indicators
- Urban Form
- Sustainability
- Hazard and Risk Management
- Services and Utility
70
What is Zoning?
- Certain parcel of land are delineated for a certain use
- Certain land uses are also given buffer zone around them
71
How is GIS being used in Lagos Eko Atlantic?
Planning
72
What social changes force UK urban areas to regenerate?
- Counter urbanisation
- Increase in car use
- Increased WFH
- Increase online shopping
- Bombing raids during WW2
73
What economic changes force UK urban areas to regenerate?
- Suburbanisation
- Decentralisation
- Decline in manufacturing industry
- Rise in quaternary industry located out of town
- Aging of infrastructure
- Attracting tertiary industry in the modern 'service' economy
74
Describe the Margaret Thatcher Government Policy Details
- Thirteen UDCs were set up to manage urban redevelopment in the UK. They aimed to attract investment from the private sector.
- Areas of land where business incentives were offered such as raw reductions.
- Small teams of civil servants who worked on improving the environment and recreation.
75
What is an example of urban regeneration during the Thatcher period?
76
Describe the John Major Government Policy Details
- Funding by competitive bids rather than those most in need.
- A change in emphasis away from unelected boards towards partnerships with the private sector and local communities. 30 City Challenge Partnerships were established.
- Disparate funding from more than twenty sources was administered by the Department for the Environment.
77
What is an example of urban regeneration during the Major period?
'Objective 1' in 1993
- Upgrades to Liverpool airport and the Wirral Waterfront. However less money was received (£700m) than expected (£1bn)
78
Describe the Tony Blair and Gordon Brown Government Policy Details
- Emphasis on local priorities and involvement. Housing, crime and unemployment were particularly targeted.
- Coordination of regional economic development and regeneration. Wide ranging powers.
- National regeneration agency for England to 'support high quality sustainable growth in England'.
- Organised and delivered regeneration projects in key urban locations
- A wave of government and QUANGO initiatives
79
What is an example of urban regeneration during the Blair and Brown period?
Olympic bid regeneration
80
Describe the Coalition Government Policy Details
- Replaced RDAs
- A 'Bonus' is an incentive to local authorities to accept housing growth (councils receive double the council tax per home for six years).
- Neighbourhoods receive a proportion of the funds councils raise from developers.
- City leaders, alongside LEPs, can make a case to be given new powers to promote economic growth and set their own local policies (decentralisation of power). TIF gives local councils new borrowing powers to finance infrastructure and capital projects.
81
What is an example of urban regeneration during the Coalition period?
Longbridge in St Mouwen
- 50 new homes
- Over 200000 ft2 of new office and industrial space
- The £100 million Longbridge Technology Park, home to more than 60 businesses, aims to make Longbridge the Midlands' leading centre for technology and innovation
- The £23 million Cofton Centre industrial park
- £8 million internet Connectivity Package - digital and physical improvements, including some of world's fastest internet speeds, to attract heavy-use operations such as data centres
- The Factory, a three-storey flagship youth centre including sports hall, ICT suite, workshop area and media centre
82
What is QUANGO?
Quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisation
83
Why did the Docklands area need regeneration?
- Population decline
- Deindustrialisation
- Containerization of shipping results in Docks moving to deeper ports at Tilbury
- Male unemployment = 60%
- Counter-urbanisation / suburbanisation
- Lack of transport
84
What is the LDDC?
London Docklands Development Corporation
- A government QUANGO set up in 1981
85
What was done at Docklands regeneration?
- Enterprise zones set up to bring new industry (1981)
- Jubilee line extended to reach the Docklands (1990s)
86
What were the 4 legacy targets for London Olympics?
- Economic
- Sports
- Social and Volunteering
- Regeneration
87
What's in the legacy of the 2012 Olympic Games in Stratford London?
- Still much more wealth in Canary Wharf than Stratford
- £9.3B in taxpayer price tag 0 other good causes lost out
- 26% businesses said regeneration was bad for business
- 212 businesses relocated
- Local residents reluctant to move homes
- 4000 homes and 3000 affordable homes
- Cleaned up polluted land
88
What are Pre-industrial cities like?
- Still retain their original character and old buildings
- Narrow streets in historical centre - may be surrounded by newer developments
- Segregation between wealth (centre) and lower socio-economic groups (surrounding centre)
- Class divide between centre and surrounding area
- Eg. Oxford
89
What are Modern (or industrial) cities like?
- Significant amount of zoning
- Limited consideration for natural environment
- Typical inner-city deprivation
- Often grid-patterned / planned around transport eg. rail and road
- Eg. Chicago
90
What are Post-industrial cities like?
- Urban 'mosaic' - lots of small zones rather than large ones
- High-tech developments (corridors) and peripheral 'edge' developments
- More 'chaotic' urban form but still in
91
What is the class divide in urban areas?
Class divide between centre and surrounding area.
## Footnote
Example: Oxford.
92
What are Modern (or industrial) cities like?
Significant amount of zoning, limited consideration for natural environment, typical inner-city deprivation, often grid-patterned/planned around transport (e.g., rail and road).
## Footnote
Example: Chicago.
93
What are Post-industrial cities like?
Urban 'mosaic' with lots of small zones, high-tech developments and peripheral 'edge' developments, more 'chaotic' urban form but still in a planned way.
## Footnote
Example: Milton Keynes.
94
What are Public Transport Oriented (PTO) cities like?
PTO cities prioritize integrated transport systems (ITS), with a 'nodal' structure connecting transport hubs to smaller, auxiliary transport.
## Footnote
Example: 90% of journeys in Hong Kong are by public transport.
95
What is the cycle of Donut Cities?
Shopping centers and housing estates built on outskirts, leading to decreased population in city centers, resulting in city centers dying out.
96
What are Donut Cities?
Urban form where city centers' land use is less important than surrounding suburbs.
97
What are Moto-based cities like?
Significant road networks, high suburbanization and decentralization, large sprawling urban forms with low density.
98
What are African Cities like?
Grown from colonial settlements, often unplanned and chaotic, with limited industrialization.
## Footnote
Example: Nairobi.
99
What are Post-Socialist Cities like?
'Classless' city with homogenous apartment blocks, separate districts, and housing close to services.
## Footnote
Example: Prague.
100
What is a Town Centre Mixed-Use Development?
Counters counter-urbanization and suburbanization, co-locating different land uses for shared use and ease of access.
## Footnote
Example: Bedzed (Beddington Zero-Energy Development).
101
What are features of a town centre mixed-use development?
Flagship attractions, leisure facilities, investment in public realm, accessible public space, residential areas, cultural events.
102
What are Cultural and Heritage Quarters?
Areas that use history and culture to promote themselves, marketing heritage to tourists and businesses for economic benefits.
## Footnote
Example: Oxford, Nottingham's Lace Market.
103
What are Fortress Developments?
Cities become highly securitized with gated communities for wealthy residents, creating 'safe' spaces and encouraging social segregation.
104
What is Gentrification?
Investments into lower income areas as middle class residents move in, displacing previous lower class residents.
105
What are Edge Cities?
Established urban centers on the fringes of larger cities.
## Footnote
Example: Croydon.
106
What is Multiculturalism?
The presence of multiple distinct cultural/ethnic groups in a society.
107
How many languages are spoken in London?
300.
108
What drives much of the socio-economic diversity in cities today?
Migration.
109
What are the advantages of multiculturalism in urban areas?
Economic benefits, cultural exchange, development of multicultural arts, language development, shared cultural understanding.
110
What are the disadvantages of multiculturalism in urban areas?
Wealth inequality, educational inequality, erosion of national culture, culture clash, racial and ethnic tension, pressure on services.
111
What is Social Segregation?
The separation or isolation of groups of people determined by race, class, or ethnic group.
112
What law impacts newly built properties?
Section 106: Affordable housing enforcement, requiring a proportion to be social housing.
113
What are examples of social segregation with properties?
Poor door entrances, barred from using services such as playgrounds and gyms.
114
Has the government been successful at managing social segregation?
No, there are no social interactions/integration between tenant types.
115
What is Deprivation?
When a group lacks sufficient important services such as employment, health, and education.
116
What is the Cycle of Deprivation?
Loss of industry, decreased tax income, decline in area quality, reduced quality of life, lack of private sector investment.
117
What is being done to address issues of deprivation?
London's social integration strategy, race action plan, increased affordable housing targets, criticism of segregation practices.
118
Are actions to remedy deprivation working?
No, significant poverty and overcrowding persist among Black/British and African populations.
119
What is Los Angeles ranked on the Global Cities Index?
6th - Alpha city.
120
How did LA grow?
Due to the Gold Rush, white middle classes moved to escape industrial cities, and post-WW2 growth was propelled by the Interstate Highway System.
121
How much has the LA population grown?
From 100,000 in 1900 to 4,000,000 now.
122
Describe the location of LA.
Located in a large coastal basin surrounded by mountains and the Pacific Ocean, covering an area of 1,210 km².
123
What happened to LA in 1994?
The Northridge Earthquake caused $12 billion in damage and led to infrastructure improvements.
124
Describe LA's structure.
City is divided into 88 cities.
125
How many cars are in LA per household?
1.63, often called the 'Car capital of the world.'
126
What happened in LA in 1959?
'Streetcars' were dismantled to create coral reefs as car companies bought out public transport.
127
Describe the population of LA.
Non-Hispanic whites = 28.7%, Black or African American = 9%, Hispanic or Latino = 47%, Asian = 11.7%.
128
Describe the series of Race uprisings in LA.
The Watts uprisings of 1965 resulted in 34 deaths, and the 1992 uprising caused $1.3B in damage and 53 deaths.
129
What caused the LA Race uprisings?
Police brutality, tensions with Korean immigrants, rise of Neo-Liberal Conservatism, and the murder of Latasha Harlins.
130
Describe the Economic Inequality in LA.
CBD suffered economically as businesses followed workers to suburbs, leading to a 'donut city' structure.
131
What is the average net worth of LA households?
White - $355,000, Mexican - $3,500, Black - $4,000.
132
Describe the Environmental Issues of LA.
LA suffers from air pollution due to geography and heavy reliance on cars, leading to smog.
133
Describe LA's Land use.
Typifies modern urban sprawl, with low density housing across 88 cities.
134
Describe the Cultural Diversity of LA.
Mexican Hispanics are the largest ethnic group, with many distinct ethnic enclaves throughout the city.
135
What is the Population of Mumbai?
20 Million.
136
Describe the Location of Mumbai.
West coast in the state of Maharashtra.
137
Describe the Level of Development of Mumbai.
Mumbai is India's commercial, economic, transportation, and cultural center, attracting foreign investment.
138
Describe the Land Use of Mumbai.
One of the most crowded cities, with skyscrapers in the CBD and many living in shanty towns.
139
Describe the Economic Inequality of Mumbai.
Many live in poverty, with a large informal economy and lack of access to clean water.
140
Describe the Cultural Diversity of Mumbai.
Receives around 1000 new migrants daily, with multiple languages and festivals celebrated.
141
What is Dharavi?
One of the densest population centers and one of the world's largest slums, with a population of 1 million.
142
What happened in the 1992-3 Bombay Riots?
900 people (mainly Muslims) were killed, tensions escalated after the destruction of a mosque.
143
What is a microclimate?
Climate of a small area that differs from the surrounding area.
144
What unique patterns do cities create?
Cities create unique patterns of temperature, precipitation, storms, humidity, wind, visibility, and pollution.
145
Why does the urban heat island effect exist?
Due to low albedo, limited vegetation, anthropogenic heat, and building materials heating up faster.
146
What is a sky view factor?
The amount of sky visible from a place; cities have a low factor.
147
What is the Urban Dome?
Area above a city where the microclimate sits.
148
How much warmer are urban areas than rural areas?
6ºC.
149
What impacts can buildings have on urban wind?
Cities have lower air pressure, slower winds at canopy level, and chaotic winds at street level.
150
What is updrafting?
Higher urban air temperatures cause air to rise, speeding up the updrafting process.
151
What are Urban Canyons?
Narrow streets that funnel wind, causing it to speed up.
152
What is the Venturi effect?
When wind collides with a building, it slows and creates high pressure, causing high-velocity winds around buildings.
153
What differences in precipitation patterns do cities have?
Urban areas see 10% more cloud cover and receive 5-30% more precipitation, with heavier rainfalls.
154
What is Condensation Nuclei?
Microscopic particles around which water condenses.
155
How does Condensation Nuclei contribute to thunderstorms?
Rapidly rising air and particle collisions create electric charges, resulting in thunderstorms.
156
What is the relative humidity in cities compared to rural areas?
Lower.
157
How do cities have lower relative humidity?
Cities are warmer and can hold more moisture.
