Contemporary Urban Environments Flashcards
(139 cards)
1
Q
What is urbanisation?
A
an increase in population of urban areas, the growth of a city. It is caused by rural to urban migration
2
Q
What is suburbanisation?
A
suburbs on the outer-edge of a settlement, when a city grows outwards
3
Q
What is counter-urbanisation?
A
large numbers of people move from urban areas into rural surrounding areas
4
Q
What is a megacity?
A
a city with a population of over 10 millions people
5
Q
What is a worldcity?
A
a city considered to be important in the global economic and political systems
6
Q
Example of a worldcity:
A
Shanghai
7
Q
What is urban resurgence?
A
economic and political decisions to make an urban area attractive again e.g. regeneration projects
8
Q
What is a metacity?
A
conurbation with more than 20 millions people (usually along coastal areas)
9
Q
Examples of cities experiencing population decline:
A
Detroit - economic contraction
Emigration - Poland
Tokyo - low fertility rates
10
Q
What percentage of population of people living in urban areas increased to?
A
From 30% in 1950 to 50%
11
Q
When was there a big movement in people moving to the cities?
A
The Industrial Revolution
12
Q
Globally, has the proportion of people living in cities increased or decreased since 1945?
A
Increased
13
Q
Causes of urban growth:
A
- natural increase
- increased job opportunities
- rural - urban migration
14
Q
Consequences of urban growth:
A
- crime rates increase
- over population can lead to poverty
- impacts on the environment e.g. pollution
- social & economic inequality
15
Q
What does LDE stand for?
A
less developed economies
16
Q
What does EME stand for?
A
emerging market economies
17
Q
What does HDE stand for?
A
highly developed economies
18
Q
What are some economic reasons for development in cities as they urbanise?
A
- job opportunities
- business growth
- loss of agricultural jobs drive people into urban areas
19
Q
What are some social reasons for development in cities as they urbanise?
A
- higher living standards (healthcare & education)
- cultural expression centres
- segregation
20
Q
What are some technological reasons for development in cities as they urbanise?
A
- hotspots for technological advancements
- large number of high tech industries have emerged
- attracts people (high paid / specialised jobs)
21
Q
What are some political reasons for development in cities as they urbanise?
A
- increased inequalities between rich and poor
- political reform
- movements emerge to represent the working class population
22
Q
What are some demographical reasons for development in cities as they urbanise?
A
- attracts migrants
- attracts younger people
23
Q
Economic impacts of deindustrialisation:
A
- loss of jobs
- closure of businesses
- loss of tax income
- increase in demand for benefits
- decline in property prices
24
Q
Social impacts of deindustrialisation:
A
- unemployment
- deprivation
- increased crime rates
- loss of confidence
25
Environmental impacts of deindustrialisation:
- derelict lands and buildings
- pollution
- deteriorating infrastructure
- decrease in noise and air pollution
26
What is decentralisation?
movements of population & industry from urban areas to outlying areas
27
What is urban sprawl?
the spread of urban areas into the surrounding countryside
28
Strategies for urban policy & regeneration in Britain since 1979:
- Urban Development Corporations e.g. London Docklands
- Enterprise Zones e.g. Sheffield
- City Challenges e.g. Hulme City Partnership Challenge, Manchester
- Partnership Schemes e.g. Liverpool Region Local Enterprise Partnership
29
What is urban form?
physical characteristics that make up a city, including the size, shape, population density and arrangement of cities
30
What is urban morphology?
refers to the spatial structure and organisation of an urban area
31
What are some impacts of urban form & morphology:
- topography
- infrastructure
- history
- policies
- shocks e.g. COVID-19
- TNCs
32
What is the "Bid-rent" theory?
land/real estate/rental costs are higher in and around a city's central business district due to demand.
- smaller independent businesses move outwards
- large businesses locate to the CBD (TNCs)
- 1980s shopping centres affected land values increasing in such areas, they move out of town
33
Land use in LICs:
- house prices decrease in value away from the city centre
- immigrants settle on the outskirts
- poverty, poorly paid jobs & limited access to services on the outskirts
- industrial areas located along transport links e.g. Major Roads
- land value is low on the outskirts
34
Land use in HICs:
- semi-rural areas have larger & newer houses than those in inner city areas
- inner city areas have high land value and so housing is high density
- science / business parks and shopping centres are constructed in semi-rural areas
- houses increase in value away from the city centre
- inner city residents have low wages & many live in poverty
35
What model shows the land use in HICs?
The Burgess Model
36
What are some types of cities?
- pre-industrial cities
- modern / industrial cities
- post-industrial cities
- public transport / motor-based cities
- african cities
- socialist cities
37
Examples of a pre-industrial cities:
Lincoln / Bath / York
38
Examples of modern / industrial cities:
Birmingham / Chicago
39
Examples of post-industrial cities:
Tokyo / LA
40
Examples of public transport / motor-based cities:
Hong Kong / Detroit
41
Examples of African cities:
Cape Town / Nairobi
42
Examples of socialist cities:
Prague
43
What are some strategies to show urban areas have changed over time?
- Town Centres Mixed Developments
- Cultural & Heritage Quaters
- Fortress Developments
- Edge Cities
- Gentrified Areas
44
Example of a Town Centre Mixed Development:
Longbridge in Birmingham
- largest regeneration scheme outside of London
- redeveloping the old car plant (MG Rovers)
- created houses, jobs, colleges
45
Advantages of Town Centre Mixed Develpoments:
- improved environment (green space)
- re-branding buildings (sense of place)
- attracts investment
46
Disadvantages of Town Centre Mixed Developments:
- takes a long time
- inequalities
- displacement
47
Example of cultural & heritage quaters:
Cardiff, Wales
- invested into their old docklands
- added new commercial, tourist & leisure developments
48
Advantages of cultural & heritage quaters:
- attracts investment
- economic development - increase jobs
49
Disadvantages of cultural & heritage quaters:
- other areas neglected
- inequalities
50
Example of a fortress development:
Bow Quater, London
- 19 houses, 714 appartments
- CCTV 24/7
- security 24/7
51
Advantages of fortress developments:
- gives people a nice place to live
- prevents crime
- higher QofL
52
Disadvantages of fortress developments:
- displacement
- social inequalities
53
Example of an edge city:
LA
- settlements beyond the original boundary
- as a result of urban sprawl
- Palisades, Sherman Oaks
54
Advantages of an edge city:
- self-contained
- nice place to live
55
Disadvantages of an edge city:
- social segregation
- homelessness and poverty
56
Example of a gentrified area:
Hackney, London
- 2010 = most deprived borough
- wealthy people moved in, increase of 319% in house prices
57
Advantages of a gentrified area:
- positive multiplier effect
- nice place to live
58
Disadvantages of a gentrified area:
- displacement of poorer people
- social & ethnic segregation
59
What is a post-modern city?
a city that reflects the changed social & economic conditions of the late 20th century in some Western Cities
60
Example of a post-modern city:
Las Vegas
61
What factors can change in post-modern cities?
- urban structure
- urban architecture/landscape
- urban government
- urban economy
- planning
- culture and race
62
What is multiculturalism?
can refer to a nationality, race, age and traditions. the co-existence and interaction of diverse cultures within a society or geographic area (cultural diversity)
63
What is economic inequality?
the difference between living standards / unequal distribution of money amongst a population
64
How many ethnic groups in Toronto, Canada?
200
65
What percentage of New Yorkers speak a language other than English?
45%
66
How many languages are spoken in London?
300+
67
Some evidence of multicultural societies:
- contrasting places of worship
- celebration of different religious festivals
- speciality shops & services
- language, media & newspapers
68
Economic issues with cultural diversity:
- migrants meet the labour shortages e.g. NHS
- they are low paid jobs
- hard to obtain a mortgage, multiple families may have to live under one roof
69
Example of an association to stop economic issues with cultural diversity:
"Hackney Bangladeshi Cultural Assosiation"
70
Why are ethnic children more likely to go to university?
They have higher aspirations due to a lack of opportunities in their home country
71
What is an urban microclimate?
the small-scale variations in precipitation, humidity, wind speed and evaporation that occurs in a particular environment such as an urban area
72
What are urban heat islands?
the zone around and above an urban area which has higher temperatures than the surrounding areas
73
What is albedo?
the reflectivity of a surface
- light surfaces reflect more than dark ones = greater albedo
- urban surfaces tend to have a lower albedo as they absorb energy rather than reflecting it
74
What are temperature sinks?
cool air bodies above parks and large bodies of water
75
What are temperature plateus?
areas with the same land use = same temperature
76
What are cliffs?
rapid changes
77
Causes of the urban heat island effect:
- absorption of heat by urban surfaces
- air pollution
- heat from human activity
- less evapotranspiration
78
What are anticyclones?
periods of settled weather (high pressure) with clear skies and low winds
79
Impacts of the UHI effect:
- increased energy consumption
- alteration of local climate
- socio-economic inequality
- environmental degradation
- impact on water resources
- health impacts
80
Potential strategies to manage the UHI effect:
- water conservation / management
- increased green spaces
- cool roofs e.g. white roofs
- increased permeable surfaces
- renewable energy
81
What happens to precipitation in urban areas?
it is higher
- dust pollution
- more evaporation and cloud formation
82
What happens to fog in urban areas?
it is higher
- particle pollution
83
What happens to winds in urban areas?
it is higher
- convectional processes
- increased channelling from skylines
84
What is channelling?
wind redirected down long, straight, canyon-like streets where there is less friction
85
What is channelling also known as?
"urban canyons"
86
What is the venturi effect?
wind velocities increase when air flows through an increasingly narrow gap e.g. between two buildings
87
What has the Burj Khalifa in Dubai done to adapt to winds?
- over 828m tall
- potential for 240 km/h winds
- softened edges to protect this
- sways up to 2m
- orientated relative to the prevailing wind direction
88
What has Siemenshead office in Abu Dhabi done to adapt to winds?
- faces the prevailing wind
- created venturi tunnels
- maintains airflow, forces cooler air up
- panels reflect sunlight
89
What happens if buildings are built close together regarding winds in urban areas?
greater skimming effect, "dead air zones"
90
What is particulate air pollution?
caused by the release of particles & noxious gases into the atmosphere. Can occur naturally but mainly from fossil fuels
91
What is smog?
combination of smoke and fog
92
What is photochemical smog?
when sunlight reacts chemically with industrial/vehicle emmisions to form secondary gases
93
How is fog formed?
particles from industry act as condensation nuclei & encourages fog formation at night (under high pressure / weak winds)
94
Is air quality worse or better in urban areas?
worse
95
Why are there usually health problems in urban areas?
effects from the dust, soot & gases released through industry & vehicle emmisions
96
What is temperature inversions?
a layer in the atmosphere where air temperature increases with height instead of decreasing. Traps pollution over a city
97
When was the Great Smog in London?
1952
98
How many people died in the Great Smog and why?
12,000 in 4 days due to respiratory problems & car accidents from the smog
99
When was the UK Clean Air Act?
1956
100
What is NO?
nitric oxide
101
What is NO2?
nitrogen oxide
102
What are VOCs?
volatile organic compounds
103
What are anthropogenic sources of nitrogen oxides?
- fossil fuels
- combustion
- agriculture
- transportation
- power plants
- chemical industry
104
How do primary pollutants turn into secondary pollutants?
sunlight
105
What are the primary pollutants?
NO/NO2/VOCs
106
What are the secondary pollutants?
O3/PANs
107
What weather condition do primary pollutants turn into secondary pollutants?
anticyclones
108
How much for CO2 in urban areas?
2 x more
109
How much more nitrous oxides in urban areas?
10 x more
110
How much more sulphur dioxide in urban areas?
200 x more
111
What are some impacts of low air quality in urban areas?
- hear problems
- respiratory problems
- haze
- fatigue
- increased greenhouse effect
- acid rain
112
What is the ozone?
layer of high concentration of ozone that is found in the stratosphere around 15–30km above the earth's surface
113
Why is the ozone useful in the upper atmosphere?
as it protects from UV radiation
114
Why is the ozone harmful in the lower atmosphere?
human impacts such as health problems
115
Why does LA have low air quality?
anticyclone conditions, sunlight reacts to NOs and hyrdocarbons, creating secondary gases (ozone)
116
Famous impact of low air quality in LA:
"LA eye sting"
117
What are particulates?
tiny pieces of solids & tiny droplets of liquid floating in the air
118
Strategies to manage air quality in urban areas?
- vehicle control
- public transport
- clean air acts / legislation
- zoning of industry
- technical innovations / alternative fuels
- planting trees
- low emission zones
- funds to stop old cars etc.
119
What are some inputs in urban areas?
- increased precipitation
- water artificially imported into the system
120
What are some stores in urban areas?
- decreased surface storage
- decreased water stored in soil & rock as less infiltration
121
What are some transfers in urban areas?
- decreased vegetation = decreased evapotranspiration
- increased surface runoffs
- poor water quality in surface runoff as it picks up pollutants
- decreased infiltration
- artificial drainage systems
122
What is the water budget?
the balance between inputs & outputs in a drainage basin
123
What is hard engineering?
man-made structures disrupt natural systems
124
Examples of hard engineering:
dams, floodwalls/embankments/man-made levees
125
What is soft engineering?
using knowledge of the basin & river processes to work with nature
126
Examples of soft engineering:
river restoration, conservation
127
What is fluvial flooding?
rivers overflow/flood
128
What is pluvial flooding?
heavy rainfall = land floods
129
What is source control?
keeping the rainfall at its source
130
What is site control?
keeping the rainfall close by to the source
131
What are SuDS?
aim to replicate a natural environment in a built up area
- hold back & slow surface runoff from developments
- allow natural processes to break down pollutants
132
Are SuDS only used in urban areas?
No
133
What do SuDS stand for?
sustainable (urban) drainage systems
134
Examples of SuDS:
- swales
- rain gardens
- detention basins
- bioretention basins
- infiltration trenches
135
What are swales?
wide & shallow drainage channels that are usually dry, they can be landscaped & made to appear attractive
136
What are rain gardens?
shallow landscape depressions (holes) planted with flowers and shrubs
137
What are detention basins?
excuvated (dug out areas), they hold as ponds for water storage during storm events
138
What are bioretention basins?
beneath ponds/reed beds there are sand or gravel layers, they collect, filter and store water, whilst also creating habitats
139
What are infiltration trenches?
gravel filled drains and filter strips
