crime and deviance Flashcards
(100 cards)
1
Q
merton key ideas
A
- functionalist
- strain theory - society sets cultural goals but unequal means of achieving these causes strain
- theoretical approach
- framework based on existing knowledge and observations
- interpreting existing data and research to develop a theory
CIRRR
Conformity - accepting cultural goals and means of achieving them
Innovation - accepting cultural goals but using illegitimate means to achieve them
Ritualism - abandoning cultural goals but adhering to legitimate means
Retreatism - rejecting both the goals and the means
Rebellion - replacing cultural goals with new ones, adopting alternative means to achieve them
other findings:
- cultural imbalance - strain a result of society’s unequal structure
- anomie - result of disjunction between goals and means - leading to higher levels of deviance
criticisms:
- focus on lower social classes
- overemphasis on cultural goals
- deterministic approach
- ignored gender and ethnicity
- changes over time
2
Q
carlen key ideas
A
- feminist criminology - trad criminology ignores women
- how structures like patriarchy and poverty shape women’s lives
- qualitative research methods
- unstructured interviews with 39 women who had offended
- detailed personal stories that understood individual and social factors
key findings
- role of poverty - many women driven to crime by poverty
- broken deals - gender deal and the class deal
- gender deal - support through trad gender norms
- class deal - employment and financial stability
- limited choices for women - experiences of abuse and lack of education limited their ability to obtain these deals
- impact of imprisonment - prison failed to address underlying issues such as trauma and poverty
criticisms
- small sample size
- focus on extreme case studies
- overemphasis on structural factors
- change nature of gender roles in contemporary society
3
Q
albert cohen key ideas
A
- functionalist subculture perspective
- working-class boys couldn’t achieve success through traditional means created own subcultures
- qualitative approach
- observations and analysis of existing sociological data
- analysis of structures and cultural norms of delinquent subcultures
key findings
- status frustration - inability to achieve society’s idea of success
- formation of delinquent subcultures that have an alternate status hierarchy
- inverts norms and values of mainstream society
- collective solution to shared problems
- gangs provide sense of belonging
- status derived from non-utilitarian crimes such as vandalism, fighting and truancy
- reaction formation - adopting behaviours in direct opposition to social norms
criticisms
- overemphasis on social class
- focus on males - ignores female subcultures
- changes over time
- over-simplification - other factors influence subcultural formation
4
Q
heidensohn key ideas
A
- feminist perspective
- explained why women commit fewer crimes and how criminal justice system treat women
- qualitative and quantitative methods
- reviewed crime stats and conducted own interviews
- examined previous research
key findings
- women commit fewer crimes than men due to closer supervision
- this control makes it difficult to commit crime
- women commit different forms of crime to men linked to their roles
- e.g., shoplifting and welfare fraud
- double standards applied to female criminals who are judged harshly
- violating social and gender norms
- women are more likely to be victims of crime
- patriarchal control in all aspects of life
criticisms
- overemphasis on gender ignoring factors such as ethnicity and class
- lack of comparisons to male criminality
- changes over time since heidensohn’s research
- focused on western societies
5
Q
Becker key ideas
A
- interactionist
- labelling theory
- deviance is socially constructed
- participant observation
- observed behaviours and conducted interviews with those he was studying
- marijuana users and jazz musicians
key findings
- deviance is a social construct
- smoking marijuana is seen as deviant in some contexts but not others
- process of labelling
- initial acts that violates social norms labels individuals and they internalise label
- impacts of labelling lead to social exclusion and discrimination
- subculture formation often result of being labeled deviant
- moral entrepreneurs - pressure from society to control deviant behaviour
criticisms:
- overemphasis on labels
- neglect of power dynamics in society
- limited size of research - focused on small groups
- changing attitudes over time
6
Q
social definition of deviance
A
deviance is socially defined and varies based on the social setting. Nudity,for example, may be acceptable in certain contexts but deviant in others - eg. children vs adults
7
Q
Durkheim on functions of crime
A
- there is wide variation in what different societies see as criminal
- all crimes have in common is that they are disapproved of by members of the society that they take place in
- he argues that crime is a necessary and vital part of healthy societies
- some crimes create deep shock and outrage which helps to remind everyone of boundaries between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.
- crime can help to contribute to social cohesion by reinforcing people’s values and beliefs.
- however, crime can become dysfunctional/harmful when there is too much or too little of it.
8
Q
formal vs informal social control
A
Formal:
- based on written rules and laws, enforced by state institutions
- agencies include the legislature, police force and judiciary
Informal:
- based on unwritten rules, enforced via social pressure - reactions to behaviour in firm of positive or negative sanctions. pos rewards compliancy and neg punish those who don’t conform (eg. gossip)
- more subtle, through social norms and expectations
- agencies include family members, peers or teachers.
9
Q
cross cultural variances of deviance
A
norms and rules vary across cultures leading to differences in what is considered deviant.
eg. clothing different across cultures for men, women and kids
10
Q
methods of social control
A
term refers to process by which people are encouraged or pursuaded to conform to the rules. it also refers to ways that social groups/societies deal with behaviour that breaks rules.
social control methods may involve sanctions that aim to limit or reduce frequency of deviant acts
eg. promotion at work = positive sanction. prison sentence = negative sanction
11
Q
Merton - anomie and response to goals
A
- anomie, or normlessness, occurs when a mismatch between societal goals and legitimate means to achieve them
- this increases high rates of crime and delinquency as individuals turn to alternative means to achieve success
- merton identifies 5 responses to societal goals, some of which involve crime and deviance.
12
Q
social order
A
- social order is essential for society to function smoothly, requiring stability and predictability.
- sociologists study stable and ordered aspects of social life to understand how social order is achieved and maintained
- there are 2 main approaches to explaining social order: consensus and conflict approaches
13
Q
marxist view on capitalism and crime
how capitalism results in crime
A
- m views crime as by-product of capitalist society’s structure and inequalities
- the bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat for profit increasing materialism and competition for consumer goods
- media reinforces values of consumerism, contributing to unequal access to material goods and potential resort to crime.
14
Q
marxist view on law enforcement and class bias
how law enforcement treats different classes
A
- m’s criticise legal system for favouring property owners and protecting private property.
- working class individuals are more likely to be targeted for crimes than bourgeoisie
- benefit fraud often prioritised over tax evasion, showcasing class biases in law enforcement.
15
Q
severity of deviance
A
- mild deviance, like telling a lie or parking illegally may involve harsh words or a small fine. However, we would not think of a person who tells a lie or parks on double yellow lines as a deviant.
- extreme deviance includes behaviour or beliefs that are so far outside the norms that they generate a strong negative reaction.
- examples: people who are heavily tattooed or pierced and people who claim to be abducted by aliens.
Goode (2008)
16
Q
the consensus approach to social order
A
- functionalism argues that modern society is based on value consensus. this consensus arises from socialisation, during which we learn and come to share the norms and values of our society
- functionalists argue that social order is maintained over time because most people support the rules and agree to abide by them
17
Q
historical changes of deviance
A
- human sacrifice - the norm for the Aztecs
- attitudes towards suicide - illegal for many years, kamikaze pilots hailed as heroes for sacrificing their lives
- changing social attitudes on homosexuality, abortion, divorce
18
Q
formal vs informal rules
A
formal:
- written rules with official status and official sanctions
- examples: health and safety rules in workplace
informal:
- unwritten, no official status. sanctions applied by friends family or workmates
- examples: dressing appropriately for job interview
19
Q
crime vs deviance
A
crime:
- refers to illegal acts punishable by law, such as robbery or fraud
deviance:
- behaviour that goes against societal norms and values, such as sitting next to someone on an empty bus
20
Q
marxist view on agencies of social control
A
- police and courts operate in favour of powerful, targeting certain crimes and groups disproportionately
- street crimes are policed more rigorously than white collar crimes like tax evasion.
- certain demographics eg. black individuals and working class are more likely to face law enforcement scrutiny
21
Q
agencies of social control
A
- houses of parliament: the legislature: makes the laws that regulate behaviour
- police force: maintain order, enforce law, investigate crime
- judiciary: deal with alleged offenders and to convict and sentence. backed by state
- magistrates : volunteers who hear cases in magistrate’s court. they deal with most offences. they pass more serious offences to crown court
- crown court: deals with all indictable offences (e.g. murder) and trial is held before judge and jury. person has right to appeal verdict in court of appeals.
- prison service: keep convicted offenders in custody. prisons punish lawbreakers, rehabilitate them and defer them and others from committing crimes. probation service supervises offenders release.
22
Q
merton 5 possible responses
A
culturally defined goal means of achieving goal
- conformity - yes yes
- innovation - yes no (turn to
crime) - ritualism - no yes
- retreatism - no no
- rebellion - replace replace
acronym - CIRRR
23
Q
conflict approach to social order
A
Marxist approach sees capitalist society based on conflicting interests between social classes. social order is maintained because the bourgeoisie have the power to enforce order. they are able, for example, to influence the type of laws that get passed in society.
24
Q
criticisms of Durkheim
A
- critics argue that Durkheim’s account of functions of crime is more relevant to small-scale societies than large, modern, industrial societies
- many crimes harm the victims and damage communities. they are unlikely to reinforce shared values and beliefs.
- some marxists argue that durkheim ignores the issue of power in society. they point out that the law functions in the interests if powerful groups rather than in everyone’s interests.
25
criticisms of merton
- Cohen suggests that juvenile delinquency is not always driven by material gain.
- sociologists question why some conform whole other break rules under anomie.
- some argue against consensus model, proposing society based on power struggles.
- marxists critique merton for overlooking power dynamics in society and role of laws in maintaining inequality.
26
criticisms of marxist approaches
- not all criminal laws solely benefit the dominant class - some laws reflect genuine societal consensus.
- pluralists argue for a diverse range of interests shaping laws, not just those of the ruling class
- feminist perspectives highlight the oversight of the gender issues in marxist analysis focused on social class.
27
merton on crime
merton analysed criminal behaviour from a functional perspective
- he emphasised the influence of societal structure and culture on crime
- he highlighted the concept of strain between cultural goals and legitimate means
- example: american dream as a culturally defined goal in USA
- strain theory suggests that when goals and means are mismatched, anomie occurs.
28
historical context of feminist theories
- until the 1970s, the study of crime and deviance largely ignored women, focusing instead on male offenders
- feminist sociologists began to challenge this oversight, emphasising the need to include women's experiences in criminology
- this shift in focus has led to a more nuanced understanding of crime, particularly regarding gendered experiences of victimisation and offending.
29
key feminist theories
- Frances Heidensohn is a prominent figure in feminist criminology, known for her work on control theory and its application to women's crime.
- Heidensohn argues that women's lower crime rates are influenced by social control mechanisms that restrict their opportunities to commit crime.
- the concept of 'separate spheres' is crucial in understanding the roles assigned to men and women in society, affecting their behaviour and opportunities.
30
The chivalry thesis and double deviance
- the 'chivalry thesis' posits that female offenders are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system due to societal stereotypes about women
- conversely, the 'double deviance thesis' suggests that women who violate gender norms face harsher treatment, as they are seen as breaking both legal and social rules.
- These theories highlight the complexities of gender in the criminal justice system and the varying experiences of female offenders.
31
Heidensohn's Control Theory
- Heidensohn argues that patriarchal society exerts control over women, limiting their opportunities to commit crimes compared to men.
- Women's roles in domestic life and marriage serve as mechanisms of social control, restricting their freedom and opportunities for deviance
- In the workplace, male authority figures often control women's behaviour, with sexual harassment being a significant form of this control.
- Heidensohn's theory suggests that women's fear of violence and societal judgement further constraints their behaviour in public spaces.
- The concept of 'double deviance' is introduced, where women are judged more harshly for deviant behaviour due to societal expectations.
32
Gendered socialisation and Deviance
- Gender roles dictate different levels of freedom for boys and girls, with girls often facing stricter controls and expectations
- working-class girls, in particular, are socialised to prioritise domestic responsibilities, limiting their engagement in deviant activities.
- the fear of reputation damage influences women's behaviour, as societal norms often label women based on their sexuality and actions
- heidensohn's analysis connects family dynamics to broader societal controls, illustrating how socialisation impacts deviance.
- the discussion of how family structures and expectations shape female behaviour provides insight into the intersection of gender and crime.
33
the role of fear in women's behaviour
- women's fear of violence in public spaces acts as a significant control mechanism, influencing their mobility and social interactions.
- The societal perception of women as vulnerable leads to self-regulation of behaviour, such as avoiding certain areas or activities after dark
- the concept of 'master status' is relevant here, as being labeled as a women can overshadow other identities and influence behaviour.
- Heidensohn's work encourages a critical examination of how societal fears shape women's experiences and opportunities for deviance.
- the discussion prompts consideration of how these dynamics might differ across social classes and ethnic groups.
34
Heidensohn's control theory
- control theory emphasises the importance of social bonds in preventing crime, suggesting that strong family and community ties deter criminal behaviour.
- heidensohn argues that women's roles as caregivers contribute to their lower crime rates as they are often more socially integrated than men.
- The patriarchal structure of society limits women's opportunities for crime, as they are often confined to domestic spaces.
35
socialisation and informal control
| feminism
- women play a crucial role in socialising children, instilling norms and values that contribute to societal order.
- informal social control exercised by women in communities helps maintain order, although they often lack formal over men
- the dynamics of control within the home and community illustrate the gendered nature of social control mechanisms
36
overview of crime data sources
- the two primary sources of crime data are victim surveys and official statistics recorded by the police
- victim surveys, such as the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW)
- self-report studies allow individuals to disclose their own criminal behaviour, offering a different perspective on crime statistics.
37
The Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW)
- the CSEW is a large-scale survey that interviews approximately 35,000 households annually, focusing on crime experiences over the past year
- It includes questions about various crime types, attitudes towards the police, and whether incidents were reported.
- the survey's methodology helps to capture a more comprehensive picture of crime, including not those recorded by police.
38
Limitations of Crime Data
- official statistics may under represent the true extent of crime dues to underreporting by victims or police recording practices
- victim surveys may not cover all demographics equally, potentially skewing results
- self-report studies can suffer from issues of honesty and recall bias, affecting the reliability of the data
39
Labelling theory - Interactionist perspective
- Howard Becker's labelling theory posits that deviance is not inherent in an act but is defined by societal reactions to it.
- labelling theory, associated with sociologist Howard Becker, explores how societal labels affect individuals' identities and behaviours.
- A young woman labelled as a 'junkie' may internalise this label, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy where she engages in further deviant behaviour
- the concept of 'master status' illustrates how a single label can overshadow multiple aspects of a person's identity.
- not all individuals labelled as deviant will engage in further deviance; the theory acknowledges variability in responses to labelling
40
the concept of deviant subcultures
-deviant subcultures form when individuals with similar experiences come together, creating a shared identity and set of beliefs
- member of these groups often develop routines and behaviours that align with their subculture's values, such as drug use or theft
- interaction with older members of the group provides knowledge on navigating illegal activities, such as avoiding law enforcement and selling stolen goods.
- this process highlights the social learning aspect of deviance, where behaviours are learned through interaction with others in the subculture.
41
criticisms of interactionisms view of crime
- critics argue that interactionism fails to explain the initial reasons for deviant behaviour, suggesting that some individuals consciously choose to deviate from norms
- structuralist critiques emphasise the need to consider social structures and power dynamics that influence deviance
- marxist perspectives criticise interactionism for not addressing how societal power dynamics shape definitions of deviance and criminality.
42
definition and purpose of crime statistics
- official crime stats are data collected by law enforcement agencies and reported to government bodies, primarily to understand crime trends and inform policy decisions
- these stats include various types of crimes, such as violent crimes, property crimes, and drug offences, but often exclude minor offences like traffic violations
- the data is compiled and published by the ONS in the UK
- the stats are used by policymakers, researchers, and law enforcement to allocate resources and develop crime prevention strategies
- however, stats are often criticised for not accurately reflecting the true extent of crime due to underreporting and misclassification
43
the process of constructing crime statistics
- crime stats are constructed through a series of decisions made by victims, witnesses, and police officers, which can lead to discrepancies in reported data.
- a diagram illustrating the decision-making process can help visualise how a crime is recorded:
1. witnesses: did they see the crime?
2. victims: did they report it?
3. police: did they classify it as a crime?
- if a crime is not witnessed or reported, it will not be included in the official stats, leading to a 'dark figure' of crime that remains unaccounted for.
44
limitations of police-recorded crime stats
-critics argue that police-recorded crume stats do not provide a complete picture of crime levels due to various factors, including underreporting and misclassification of incidents.
- certain crimes, such as white-collar crime and domestic violence, are often underrepresented in statistics due to societal stigma and lack of reporting.
- victim surveys, such as the CSEW, suggest that many crimes go unreported, highlighting the limitations of relying solely on police data
- the stats may also reflect policing priorities rather than actual crime rates, as police may focus on certain types of crime to meet targets.
45
marxist perspective on crime stats
- marxists argue that crime stats reflect the class-based nature of capitalist society, where the crimes of the powerful are often overlooked.
- white-collar and corporate crimes are under-policed and thus under-represented in official stats, leading to a skewed understanding of crime
- this perspective emphasises the role of power and inequality in shaping the criminal justice system and its responses to crime.
46
feminist perspective on crime stats
- feminists highlight that crime stats often under-record incidents of violence against women, including domestic and sexual violence
- they argue that societal attitudes and biases influence the reporting and recording of crimes, leading to a lack of visibility for crimes predominantly affecting women
- this perspective calls for a more nuanced understanding of crime that considers gender dynamics and the societal context of victimisation
47
Interactionist/labelling theorists perspective on crime stats
- labelling theorist suggest that behaviour is only considered deviant when it is defined as such by authorities, such as police officers.
-police-recorded crime stats may reflect the biases and priorities of aw enforcement, rather than an objective measure of crime.
- for example: police may increase enforcement of certain offences, like drink driving during holidays, to meet performance targets, affecting recorded stats
48
comparing CSEW stats with police-recorded stats
- the CSEW estimates often reveal higher crime rates than police-recorded stats, indicating underreporting issues
49
factors influencing crime reporting
-wictims may choose not to report crimes for various reason, including:
1. perception of the crime as trivial
2. belief that police cannot or will not take action
3. concerns about police sensitivity - especially in cases of sexual violence
4. fear of repercussions - especially in cases of domestic violence
5. feelings of embarrassment or shame - especially in cases of fraud
50
definitions and characteristics of white-collar crime
- white-collar crime refers ti non-violent crime committed for financial gain within a business or professional context.
- typically involves individuals in high-status positions, such as managers, accountants, and lawyers, who exploit their positions for personal benefits
- common examples include embezzlement, fraud, insider trading, and falsifying financial statements
51
white-collar crimes impact on society
- white-collar crime can lead to significant financial losses for businesses and individuals, undermining trust in institutions
- it often foes unreported or unpunished, leading to a perception that such crimes are less serious than violent crimes
- case studies, such as the Enron scandal, illustrate the far-reaching consequences of white-collar crime on employees, investors, and the economy
52
white-collar crimes reporting and recording issues
- employers may choose to dismiss employees involved in white-collar crime without involving law enforcement, leading to underreporting.
- the reluctance to report can stem from fear of reputation damage or the desire to handle issues internally.
53
ethnic stat representation in prisons
- Statistics from the Ministry of Justice (2015) indicate that certain ethnic groups are over-represented in the prison population compared to their general population numbers.
- For instance, Black individuals are approximately four times more likely to be imprisoned than White individuals, highlighting significant disparities in incarceration rates.
- The bar chart from 2014 shows that there were 14 White prisoners for every 10,000 White individuals, while the rates for Black and Asian individuals were 55 and 15 per 10,000 respectively.
- The data suggests systemic issues within the criminal justice system that may contribute to these disparities, including potential biases in policing and sentencing.
- The statistics also reveal that mixed ethnicity individuals had a prison rate of 44 per 10,000, indicating varied experiences across different ethnic backgrounds.
- Overall, these statistics raise questions about the fairness and equity of the criminal justice system.
54
victimisation patterns by ethnicity
- Walklate (2007) identifies that certain demographics are more likely to become victims of crime, with ethnicity being a significant factor.
- The likelihood of victimisation is higher among minority ethnic groups, the poor, and younger individuals, suggesting socio-economic and demographic influences on crime rates.
- Data from the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) in 2014/15 shows that 4% of White adults experienced personal crime, compared to 11% of mixed heritage adults, indicating a disparity in victimisation rates.
- The findings suggest that minority ethnic groups may face higher risks of crime, which could be linked to socio-economic factors and community dynamics.
- The relationship between ethnicity and victimisation also raises concerns about the effectiveness of the criminal justice system in protecting vulnerable populations.
- Understanding these patterns is crucial for developing targeted interventions to reduce crime and improve community safety.
55
understanding institutional racism
- Institutional racism refers to the systemic discrimination that occurs within institutions, including the criminal justice system, affecting minority ethnic groups.
- Walklate (2007) argues that police-recorded crime statistics may underestimate the prevalence of routine harassment faced by these groups.
- This underreporting can lead to a lack of awareness and inadequate responses to the issues faced by minority communities.
- The concept of institutional racism highlights the need for reforms in policing practices and policies to ensure fair treatment for all individuals, regardless of ethnicity.
- Effective legislation against hate crimes and racially motivated offenses is essential, but its implementation and enforcement remain critical challenges.
- Addressing institutional racism requires a comprehensive approach, including community engagement and education.
56
women's involvement in crime
- Recent statistics indicate that while women are generally less likely to offend than men, the gender gap in crime is narrowing, with more women being arrested for violent offences.
- The 'chivalry effect' suggests that women may be treated more leniently by the criminal justice system, but evidence indicates this effect is diminishing.
- Factors contributing to the increase in female offenders include changing societal roles, greater independence, and the impact of feminism on women's rights and opportunities.
- The rise in female crime can also be linked to the loss of traditional constraints that previously limited women's involvement in criminal activities.
- As women gain more equality in the workplace and society, they also gain similar opportunities for both legal and illegal activities as men.
- Understanding the dynamics of gender and crime is essential for developing effective crime prevention strategies.
57
Historical context of female offenders
- Over the last 40 years, there has been a notable increase in female offenders, which some commentators attribute to the liberation of women influenced by feminism.
- The rise in female crime rates is often linked to changing societal norms regarding gender roles and expectations, particularly in the context of women's rights movements.
- Historical data shows that prior to the feminist movement, women were largely confined to traditional roles, limiting their involvement in crime.
- The 1960s and 1970s marked a significant shift in women's societal roles, leading to increased visibility in various sectors, including crime.
- Feminism has played a dual role, both empowering women and exposing them to new forms of criminality.
58
economic factors influencing female crime rise
- Many women have not significantly benefited from workplace equality, often remaining in low-paid, unskilled, or part-time jobs.
- Economic hardship is a critical factor contributing to women's involvement in crime, with many female offenders living in relative poverty.
- The link between poverty and crime is evident, as financial desperation can lead to offences such as shoplifting and fraud.
- Case studies indicate that women are more likely than men to experience unemployment, which exacerbates their economic vulnerability.
- The economic situation of women is often overlooked in discussions about crime, yet it is a significant factor in understanding female offending patterns.
59
changing attitude and legal responses influencing female crime rise
- There is a growing perception that more women are being arrested and convicted, not necessarily because they are committing more crimes, but due to changing attitudes in the criminal justice system.
- The 'chivalry effect' suggests that women were previously treated more leniently by the justice system, but this is changing, leading to harsher sentencing.
- Joan Garrod (2007) highlights that the increase in female prison populations is largely due to stricter sentencing rather than an increase in serious offences committed by women.
- The shift in societal attitudes towards gender and crime has led to a more equitable, yet harsher, treatment of female offenders in the legal system.
60
historical participation of girls in youth subcultures
-In the 1960s and 1970s, girls typically engaged in private social activities rather than participating in street-based youth subcultures.
- The involvement of girls in activities such as drug use and violence was minimal compared to their male counterparts during this period.
- The shift in societal norms has led to increased participation of girls in gangs and criminal activities, reflecting broader changes in gender roles.
- Recent reports indicate a rise in all-girl gangs, suggesting a significant transformation in how young women engage with crime and violence.
- This change may be indicative of a broader acceptance of female agency in traditionally male-dominated spaces.
61
researching girls in gangs
- Research proposals on young females in gangs should include a clear title, research questions, and aims to guide the investigation.
- Primary research methods could include interviews or surveys to gather qualitative data on girls' experiences in gangs.
- Secondary sources, such as academic articles or media reports, can provide context and background for the research.
- Ethical considerations are crucial, including ensuring the safety and confidentiality of participants, especially in sensitive topics like gang involvement.
- Sociologists debate the implications of feminism on female crime rates, with varying perspectives on its impact over the last 40 years.
62
Pat Carlen's feminist perspective
- Pat Carlen (1988) conducted in-depth interviews with 39 female offenders, focusing on the intersection of gender and social class.
- Her research aimed to uncover the influences on women's criminal careers and the turning points that led them to offend.
- Carlen's findings suggest that for working-class women, both the workplace and family serve as mechanisms of social control, influencing their behaviour.
- The concept of the 'class deal' and 'gender deal' highlights the expectations placed on women to conform to societal norms in exchange for rewards.
- Carlen's work emphasises the importance of understanding the socio-economic context of female offenders, challenging traditional views of crime.
63
control theory and female offending
- Control theory posits that individuals conform to societal rules when they perceive the rewards of conformity as valuable.
- Carlen's analysis suggests that women are more likely to offend when they feel that the rewards of conforming (e.g., financial stability, emotional support) are unattainable.
- This perspective provides insight into why many female offenders come from disadvantaged backgrounds, where the 'deals' offered by society are perceived as inadequate.
- Understanding control theory in the context of female crime can help in developing targeted interventions to reduce offending rates among women.
64
the gender deal
- The gender deal refers to the societal expectation that women will find fulfilment and happiness through family life and relationships.
- Women are often socialised to believe that they will receive emotional and material rewards for adhering to traditional gender roles.
- When these rewards are not realised, women may feel disillusioned and more inclined to engage in criminal behaviour as a means of coping or survival.
- Carlen's study highlights that many women in her sample had not experienced the expected rewards of the gender deal, leading to a rejection of these - societal norms.
Factors such as abuse, lack of familial bonds, and experiences in residential care contribute to the breakdown of the gender deal for these women.
The breakdown of the gender deal can lead to a sense of having 'nothing to lose' by committing crimes.
65
the class deal
- The class deal is the expectation that individuals, particularly working-class women, will achieve material rewards through legitimate work.
- This deal includes access to consumer goods and a decent standard of living in exchange for hard work.
- Many women in Carlen's study reported having little experience with the rewards of the class deal, leading them to seek alternative means of survival, including crime.
- The rejection of the class deal often stems from systemic barriers that limit access to legitimate employment opportunities.
- Carlen identifies that when women perceive that they have more to gain than to lose by offending, they are likely to engage in criminal activities.
- The intersection of poverty and lack of legitimate opportunities creates a fertile ground for criminal behaviour.
66
poverty and crime
- Poverty is a significant factor linked to criminal behaviour, as it creates desperation and a lack of legitimate means to achieve financial stability.
- Women in Carlen's study identified poverty as a primary reason for their criminal activities, viewing crime as a potential solution to their financial struggles.
- The experience of poverty can lead to feelings of hopelessness and a belief that crime is the only viable option for improving one's circumstances.
- Case studies show that women from impoverished backgrounds often resort to crime as a means of survival, especially when traditional support systems fail.
- The cycle of poverty can perpetuate criminal behaviour, as individuals may become trapped in a system where crime seems like the only option.
- Societal stigma surrounding poverty can further alienate individuals, pushing them towards criminal networks.
67
residential care and criminality
- Living in residential care can significantly impact a woman's likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour.
- Many women in Carlen's study reported negative experiences in care, including lack of emotional support and feelings of abandonment.
- The absence of stable family relationships can lead to a rejection of societal norms, including the gender and class deals.
- Women from residential care backgrounds may feel disconnected from societal expectations, making them more susceptible to criminal influences.
- The search for excitement and belonging can drive individuals from care facilities to engage in risky behaviour, including crime.
- Understanding the psychological impact of living in care is crucial for addressing the root causes of criminal behaviour among these women.
68
Merton's anomie theory
- Merton's anomie theory posits that societal pressure to achieve success can lead individuals to resort to crime when legitimate means are blocked.
- The 'American Dream' serves as a cultural goal, but not everyone has equal access to the means of achieving it, particularly working-class individuals.
- When faced with limited opportunities, some may turn to criminal methods as an alternative route to success.
- Merton categorises responses to anomie into five modes: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion, with innovation being the pathway to crime.
- This theory helps explain why working-class individuals may be overrepresented in crime statistics, as they often face systemic barriers to success.
- Merton's framework provides a lens through which to understand the motivations behind criminal behaviour in the context of social class.
69
cohen's subcultural theory
- Albert Cohen's subcultural theory focuses on juvenile delinquency, particularly among working-class boys.
- Cohen argues that these boys experience status frustration due to their inability to meet middle-class expectations in school.
- In response, they form delinquent subcultures that value behaviours such as vandalism and violence, which provide them with status among peers.
- The formation of these subcultures allows individuals to gain a sense of belonging and identity outside of traditional societal norms.
- Cohen's theory highlights the importance of peer influence and social context in shaping criminal behaviour among youth.
- This perspective underscores the need to consider social class and age when analysing crime and deviance.
70
white collar crime definitions and examples
- White-collar crime refers to non-violent crimes committed by individuals in high-status positions during their professional activities.
- Common examples include tax evasion, fraud, and misuse of corporate resources, which often go undetected due to their nature.
- Nelken (2007) emphasizes that the challenge with white-collar crime is proving that an offences has occurred rather than identifying a perpetrator.
- Unlike street crime, white-collar crime is often committed in the context of everyday business operations, making it less visible to law enforcement.
- The impact of white-collar crime can be significant, affecting large numbers of people and leading to substantial financial losses.
- Understanding white-collar crime is essential for a comprehensive view of crime that includes both street-level and corporate offences.
71
understanding invisible crime
- Invisible crimes, such as fraud, often go undetected due to the absence of an obvious victim, making them difficult to report and prosecute.
- White-collar crimes are frequently unreported and unrecorded, leading to a significant under representation in crime statistics.
- The concept of invisible crime highlights the challenges in identifying and addressing non-violent offences that lack visible victims.
- Examples of invisible crimes include corporate fraud, embezzlement, and tax evasion, which can have widespread societal impacts despite being less visible than street crime.
- The lack of police involvement in cases of invisible crime contributes to the perception that these offences are less serious or harmful than they actually are.
- Discussion activity prompts groups to explore the difficulties in discovering white-collar crimes and to identify other examples of invisible crimes.
72
corporate crime
- Corporate crime refers to illegal acts committed by individuals or organisations in the course of their business activities, often prioritising profit over ethical considerations.
- Offences can include the manufacture and sale of unsafe products, environmental violations, and financial fraud, impacting consumers and the environment.
- Tombs (2005) notes the lack of governmental effort to track corporate crime statistics, leading to a significant gap in understanding the prevalence of these offences.
- The resources available to corporations, such as skilled legal teams, make it challenging to prosecute corporate crimes effectively, often resulting in lenient penalties.
- The relationship between corporate crime and social class is complex, as wealthier individuals and corporations may evade accountability more easily than lower-income offenders.
- Exam practice questions encourage students to analyse the under representation of corporate crime in statistics and to consider sociological perspectives on crime and class.
73
statistical patterns in ethnicity
- Official crime statistics suggest that certain ethnic groups, particularly Black individuals, are overrepresented in prison populations, raising questions about the accuracy of these statistics.
- One explanation for this overrepresentation is the link between poverty, unemployment, and crime, suggesting that socioeconomic factors play a significant role.
- An alternative perspective argues that crime statistics may reflect systemic biases in policing and the criminal justice system, rather than actual crime rates.
- Sociologists have pointed out that Black individuals are often disproportionately targeted by law enforcement, leading to higher arrest and conviction rates.
- The Macpherson Report (1999) identified institutional racism within the Metropolitan Police, highlighting systemic issues in policing practices.
74
theoretical perspectives on crime
- Merton's strain theory can be applied to understand how societal pressures may lead some minority ethnic groups to engage in criminal behaviour as a means of achieving success.
- Marxist sociologists argue that the criminal justice system is biased against working-class individuals, including minority ethnic groups, perpetuating social inequalities.
- Becker's labelling theory suggests that individuals from minority ethnic backgrounds may be more likely to be labelled as criminals, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
- The focus on policing practices raises questions about fairness and the criteria used to profile potential offenders, often based on race and socioeconomic status.
- The article discusses how informal profiles of offenders can lead to discriminatory policing practices, disproportionately affecting young Black men.
- Students are encouraged to critically analyse the implications of these theoretical perspectives on the understanding of crime and ethnicity.
75
the role of policing in crime detection
- The article discusses the concept of 'criminalisation,' where certain groups are more likely to be targeted by police, while others evade scrutiny despite committing serious offences.
- Police often rely on informal profiles based on age, ethnicity, and gender, which can lead to biased policing practices and reinforce stereotypes.
- The effectiveness of policing is questioned, as many offenders are not caught, and those who are may not represent the broader population of criminals.
- The reliance on public reports of crime can skew police focus towards certain demographics, further entrenching systemic biases.
76
overview of age and offending
- Official statistics indicate a strong correlation between age and criminal behavior, particularly among younger individuals, especially males.
- In 2015, males aged 15-20 in England and Wales had a higher rate of being found guilty of serious crimes compared to older age groups.
- The peak offending age for males was identified as 15-17 years, with significant numbers of indictable offences reported in this demographic.
- Females also show a pattern of offending, but at lower rates than males, with peak offending ages typically being slightly older than their male counterparts.
- The data suggests that as individuals age, the likelihood of engaging in criminal activity decreases significantly.
77
statistics on age and offending
- The data indicates a significant drop in offending rates as individuals transition into adulthood, particularly after age 21.
78
self-report studies and youth crime
- Self-report studies, such as the 2004 Offending, Crime and Justice Survey, reveal that a majority of young people do not engage in criminal activities.
- Among those who do offend, many report committing minor offences, indicating that serious criminal behaviour is not as prevalent as official statistics suggest.
- Approximately 74% of young interviewees claimed they had not committed any offences in the previous year, highlighting a discrepancy between self-reported behaviour and official statistics.
- The findings suggest that while youth crime exists, it may be less severe and less frequent than often perceived.
79
socialisation and family influence
- Functionalist theories emphasise the role of primary socialisation in shaping behaviour, suggesting that inadequate socialisation can lead to criminal behaviour.
- Children from families with poor supervision or ineffective parenting are more likely to engage in delinquency, particularly in fatherless households.
- The lack of guidance in learning societal norms and values can result in a higher propensity for crime among youth.
- Delinquent behaviour is often linked to the absence of responsible adult role models, which can lead to a cycle of offending.
80
psychological and environmental factors
- Young people may seek excitement and thrill, which can lead to risky behaviours and criminal activities.
- Peer pressure and the desire for social acceptance can also drive youth to engage in crime, as they may want to fit in with delinquent groups.
- Environmental factors, such as living in high-crime neighbourhoods, can increase the likelihood of youth offending due to normalisation of criminal behaviour.
81
age and sentencing
- Young offenders aged over 15 may be placed in young offender institutions, reflecting a recognition of their age in the justice system.
- The increasing number of older prisoners, particularly those over 60, raises questions about the effectiveness of rehabilitation and the impact of demographic changes on crime rates.
- The Prison Reform Trust notes that older individuals are the fastest-growing demographic in prisons, often due to long sentences received in youth.
82
ethical considerations in research
- Researching young people's involvement in crime poses ethical challenges, such as ensuring informed consent and protecting the privacy of minors.
- Adult researchers may face difficulties in establishing trust with young participants, which can affect the reliability of data collected through interviews.
- Addressing ethical issues involves creating a safe environment for participants and ensuring that their rights are prioritised throughout the research process.
83
the concept of inadequate socialisation
- Delinquent teenagers are often viewed as inadequately socialised into societal norms and values, leading to criminal behaviour.
- Other agencies of socialisation, such as schools and religious institutions, are criticised for failing to instil these norms effectively.
- The decline in discipline within schools and the diminishing influence of religious values are linked to increased delinquency.
- The mass media is seen as glamorising violence and crime, contributing to a breakdown in social control among youth.
- This perspective suggests that inadequate socialisation at home and school can lead to delinquent behaviour.
84
subcultural theory
- Subcultural theory posits that juvenile delinquency is influenced by the values of specific subcultures.
- Albert Cohen's research in 1955 focused on working-class boys in North America, emphasising delinquency as a group phenomenon rather than an individual act.
- Membership in delinquent groups or gangs is seen as a way for young males to learn and adopt delinquent behaviours.
- Cohen argues that these subcultures arise in urban neighbourhoods where traditional values may be absent or undermined.
85
Albert Cohen's contributions
- Cohen's work highlights the concept of 'status frustration' among working-class boys who struggle to meet middle-class educational expectations.
- He suggests that delinquent subcultures provide an alternative means of achieving status and identity for these boys.
- Cohen's theory links delinquency to the education system, arguing that schools favour middle-class values, leaving working-class boys feeling marginalised.
- His focus on male delinquency has been critiqued for neglecting female experiences and perspectives in delinquency.
86
critiques of Cohen
- Critics argue that Cohen's theory exhibits a middle-class bias, assuming that all working-class youth aspire to middle-class values.
- Feminist critiques highlight the lack of attention to female delinquency and question the applicability of Cohen's findings to girls.
- Some sociologists suggest that delinquency may also be linked to individual personality traits rather than solely group dynamics.
87
moral panics and deviance amplification
- Stan Cohen's concept of moral panic describes how the media exaggerates social issues, creating a perception of threat from specific groups.
- The media often portrays certain youth subcultures, such as 'hoodies', as folk devils, reinforcing negative stereotypes.
- Cohen's case study of the mods and rockers in the 1960s illustrates how media sensationalism can distort public perception of youth behaviour.
- Deviancy amplification refers to the process by which media coverage escalates the perceived severity of social problems, leading to increased societal concern.
88
case study: mods and rockers
- In 1964, a series of minor scuffles between mods and rockers in Clacton escalated into a media frenzy, portraying youth as violent and unruly.
- Cohen analysed how the media's portrayal exaggerated the number of participants and the extent of violence, creating a moral panic.
- This case study serves as a critical example of how media narratives can shape public perception and policy responses to youth delinquency.
89
moral panic
- Definition: A moral panic is a widespread feeling of fear and concern that some group or behaviour poses a significant threat to societal norms and values.
- Historical Context: The term was popularised by sociologist Stanley Cohen in the 1970s, particularly in his study of the mods and rockers in the UK.
- Characteristics: Moral panics often involve exaggerated media coverage, public outcry, and a call for action against the perceived threat.
- Examples: Recent moral panics have included concerns over school violence, youth crime, and the portrayal of asylum seekers in the media.
- Consequences: Moral panics can lead to harsher laws, increased policing, and stigmatisation of certain groups, often resulting in a cycle of deviance and societal reaction.
90
deviancy amplification
- Definition: Deviancy amplification refers to the process by which the media exaggerates and distorts incidents of deviance, leading to increased public concern and further deviant behaviour.
- Cohen's Theory: Cohen argues that media portrayal of youth subcultures, like the mods and rockers, created a false image that encouraged more deviant behaviour among youth.
- Mechanism: The media's focus on certain behaviours can lead to a feedback loop where the amplified perception of deviance provokes more of the same behaviour.
- Case Study: The mods and rockers of the 1960s were depicted as a threat, leading to police crackdowns and further media coverage, which in turn intensified public fear.
- Modern Examples: Recent concerns about internet safety and youth behaviour reflect similar patterns of deviancy amplification.
91
media distortion and public perception
- Media Influence: The media plays a crucial role in shaping public perceptions of crime and deviance, often focusing on sensational stories that attract attention.
- Agenda Setting: Media outlets decide which stories to cover, influencing what the public perceives as important issues.
- Exaggeration of Crime: Studies show that violent crimes are often over-represented in news reports compared to their actual incidence, leading to heightened public fear.
- Gatekeeper: Editors and journalists act as gatekeepers, determining which narratives are presented and how they are framed, often prioritising sensationalism over accuracy.
- Public Anxiety: The portrayal of youth crime and anti-social behaviour in the media contributes to public anxiety and calls for stricter measures.
92
case studies of moral panic
- Mods and Rockers: In the 1960s, media coverage of clashes between these youth subcultures led to a moral panic, portraying them as a threat to social order.
- School Violence: Recent incidents of school shootings have sparked moral panics, leading to debates about gun control and youth behaviour.
- Internet Concerns: The rise of the internet has generated moral panics regarding children's safety online, with fears about exposure to inappropriate content.
- Asylum Seekers: Media narratives around asylum seekers often amplify fears, portraying them as a burden on society and contributing to public outcry.
- Youth Crime: The portrayal of youth crime in the media often leads to moral panics, resulting in increased policing and harsher sentencing.
93
issues generating public debate
- Crime Reporting: The way crime is reported in the media can lead to public debates about the effectiveness of law enforcement and the justice system.
- Youth Crime: Concerns about youth crime often dominate public discourse, with debates focusing on prevention, rehabilitation, and punishment.
- Internet Safety: Public concerns about the internet, particularly regarding children's exposure to harmful content, have led to discussions about regulation and parental control.
- Social Policy: Debates often arise around social policies related to crime, such as sentencing reforms and the treatment of young offenders.
- Community Impact: Anti-social behaviour is seen as damaging to community life, leading to discussions about community safety and cohesion.
94
media representation in youth crime
- Youth crime is frequently highlighted in UK media, often leading to public anxiety and fear.
- Pitts (2005) emphasised that incidents of youth crime are often sensationalised, making them front-page news.
- The portrayal of young offenders as 'folk devils' contributes to societal fears and moral panic, as noted by Newburn (2007).
- Minor offences, such as vandalism, are generalised to represent all young people, exacerbating public concern.
- The media's role in shaping public perception can lead to scapegoating, where youth are blamed for broader societal issues.
95
moral panic and its implications
- Moral panic refers to the societal reaction to perceived threats, often fuelled by media narratives.
- Young people are often depicted as a threat to social order, leading to heightened public concern and calls for action.
- The concept of 'folk devils' illustrates how certain groups are demonised, impacting policy and public opinion.
- Historical examples of moral panic include the 'Mods and Rockers' in the 1960s, which similarly portrayed youth as a societal threat.
96
legislative responses to knife crime
- In 2016, a ban on 'zombie killer knives' was implemented in England and Wales due to their association with violent crime.
- The ban was a response to public outcry following incidents of youth violence, including the death of a teenager in North London.
- Sarah Newton, Minister for Vulnerability, highlighted the glamorisation of violence through such weapons, emphasising the need for stricter laws.
- The effectiveness of such bans is debated; some argue they may not significantly reduce knife crime.
97
alternative approaches to tackling violent crime
- Community engagement and education programs aimed at youth can be effective in preventing crime.
- Restorative justice practices focus on rehabilitation rather than punishment, addressing the root causes of youth offending.
- Increased support for mental health services can help vulnerable youth avoid criminal behaviour.
Policies should consider the socio-economic factors contributing to youth crime, such as poverty and lack of opportunities.
98
sentencing framework
- Sentencing aims to punish offenders, protect the public, and rehabilitate individuals to reduce recidivism.
- Various types of sentences include discharges for minor offences, fines, community sentences, and prison sentences for serious crimes.
- The public often expresses concern over the clarity and fairness of sentencing policies, particularly regarding early release of prisoners.
- There is ongoing debate about whether vulnerable groups, such as young offenders, should be imprisoned for non-violent crimes.
99
challenges in the prison system
- Issues such as overcrowding, staff cuts, and high rates of suicide and self-harm among prisoners are major concerns.
- Young offenders face unique challenges in the criminal justice system, including higher rates of violence and mental health issues in custody.
- The treatment of women in prison raises additional concerns, as they may experience more severe consequences due to fewer facilities and support systems.
- Public perception often calls for tougher sentencing, yet there is a growing recognition of the need for rehabilitation over punishment.
100
sociological insights on policy makers
- Sociologists can inform policymakers by providing evidence-based research on the root causes of crime and effective intervention strategies.
- Understanding the social context of youth crime can lead to more effective policies that address underlying issues rather than merely punitive measures.
- Engaging with communities and youth can help develop programs that resonate with their experiences and needs.
- Collaborative approaches between sociologists, law enforcement, and community organisations can enhance the effectiveness of crime prevention strategies.
