social strat Flashcards
(96 cards)
1
Q
key concepts
A
- Social stratification refers to the hierarchical structure of society, where groups are ranked unequally.
- It is often visualised as a pyramid, with the most privileged at the top and the least favoured at the bottom.
- Social inequality is the uneven distribution of resources, opportunities, and life chances among individuals and groups.
2
Q
social hierarchy and inequality
A
- Social hierarchy indicates the distribution of power, wealth, income, and status across different strata.
- Resources such as education, employment, and health are distributed unequally, leading to significant disparities.
- Factors contributing to social inequality include social class, gender, ethnicity, and age.
3
Q
types of stratification
A
- Different societies exhibit various forms of stratification, including caste systems, apartheid, and feudalism.
- The caste system in India is linked to Hindu beliefs, where social position is ascribed at birth and affects life chances.
- Apartheid in South Africa enforced racial segregation, limiting opportunities for Black individuals.
4
Q
comparison of stratification systems
A
- caste - ascribed status - limited soc mobility
- apartheid - racial segregation - very limited soc mobility
- social class - achieved status - possible soc mobility
5
Q
Davis and Moore
A
- Davis and Moore (1945) argue that stratification is essential for society’s functioning.
- They believe that some roles are more important and require exceptional talent, thus justifying inequality.
- The education and training required for these roles create barriers that limit access to them.
6
Q
criticisms of functionalism
A
- Critics argue that Davis and Moore’s theory overlooks the impact of social structures on inequality.
- The theory may justify existing inequalities rather than addressing the need for social change.
7
Q
key concepts of functionalism
A
- Functionalism posits that some societal roles are more important than others for societal survival.
- Essential roles require exceptional talent and extensive training, which only a minority possess.
- Davis and Moore argue that social inequality is necessary to attract qualified individuals to important positions.
- Societies must have some degree of inequality, which is accepted as fair by the populace.
8
Q
criticisms of davis and moore
A
- Many vital jobs (e.g., nurses) have low pay and status, challenging the functionalist view.
- Pay and status may be linked to power rather than functional importance.
- Critics argue that society is not meritocratic and that social mobility is limited.
- Talented individuals may not make significant sacrifices during training, contradicting functionalist claims.
9
Q
key ideas of karl marx
A
- Marx identified two main classes in capitalist society: the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).
- Class membership is determined by economic factors, particularly ownership of production means.
- The bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat, leading to class struggle and conflict.
- Marx emphasised the link between economic power and political power, with the bourgeoisie justifying their position through ruling-class ideology.
10
Q
criticisms of marx
A
- The absence of a social revolution in capitalist societies challenges Marxist predictions.
- The emergence of a large middle class and social mobility contradicts Marxist views.
- Feminist critiques highlight the neglect of gender and ethnicity in Marxist analysis.
- Contemporary Marxists focus on the distribution of power and wealth, emphasising ongoing inequalities.
11
Q
global capitalism in the 21st century
A
- Contemporary Marxists apply Marx’s theories to global capitalism, identifying a ruling oligarchy of capitalists and power elites.
- Graham Scambler argues that a small percentage of the population holds significant wealth and power.
- Multinational corporations (MNCs) are criticised for their influence over government policies and tax evasion.
- The dynamics of global capitalism continue to shape class relations and inequalities.
12
Q
marxist approach to social strat
A
- Marx identified two main classes: the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).
- Class membership is determined by economic factors, specifically ownership of the means of production.
- Recent Marxist theories focus on global financial capitalism and its impact on class structures.
- The Occupy Movement exemplifies resistance against the wealth concentration of the top 1%.
- Marx viewed ownership as the primary division in society, with other inequalities stemming from class divisions.
13
Q
weber approach to social strat
A
- Max Weber argued that social classes are formed in marketplaces, particularly the labour market.
- He identified four main classes: property owners, petty bourgeoisie, professionals, and the working class.
- Weber emphasised the importance of non-economic factors such as status (prestige) and power (political influence) in determining life chances.
- He distinguished between class and status, noting that they can differ; for example, aristocrats may lack wealth but possess high status.
- Weber’s view includes the idea that life chances are influenced by access to education, health, and opportunities.
14
Q
challenges in researching elites
A
- Researching elite groups is difficult due to their limited visibility and accessibility.
- Elites often have resources to control their image and limit exposure to researchers.
- There may be a lack of willingness from elites to participate in studies, fearing exposure or misrepresentation.
- Ethical considerations arise when studying powerful groups, as their influence can affect research outcomes.
15
Q
the Registrar General’s Classification
A
- The Registrar General’s scale was the UK’s official class scale from 1911 to 1998, distinguishing between manual and non-manual occupations.
- It identifies five social classes: I (Professional), II (Managerial), III (Skilled Non-manual), IV (Skilled Manual), and V (Unskilled).
- Manual occupations are seen as working class, while non-manual occupations are considered middle class.
- The scale has limitations, such as not accommodating jobless individuals and not reflecting wealth or property accurately.
16
Q
National Statistics Socio-economic Classification (NS-SEC)
A
- The NS-SEC groups occupations based on similar rewards, career prospects, and job security.
- It includes categories such as ‘Students’ and ‘Not classified’ for those not adequately described.
- Higher managerial roles include senior sales managers and solicitors, while lower roles include social workers and teachers.
- The classification helps in understanding employment status and authority levels in the workforce.
17
Q
definition of life chances
A
- Life chances refer to the opportunities individuals have for achieving positive or negative outcomes in life.
- These outcomes include health, education, and income, which are not equally distributed among social classes.
- Higher social classes generally have better access to desirable resources like healthcare and housing.
18
Q
factors affecting life chances
A
- Life chances are influenced by social class, gender, ethnicity, and other factors.
- Inequalities in health, education, and income are prevalent among different social classes.
- The Child Poverty Action Group highlights that low income directly reduces life chances, particularly in education.
19
Q
the emboureoisiement thesis
A
- The embourgeoisement thesis suggests that working-class families adopt middle-class norms as their living standards improve.
- This process leads to a focus on privatised lifestyles centred around home and family.
- Traditional working-class values of community are thought to diminish as affluence increases.
20
Q
the affluent worker study
A
- Conducted by Goldthorpe in the 1960s, this study aimed to test the embourgeoisement thesis in Luton, England.
- Researchers used structured interviews with affluent manual workers and their families to gather data on attitudes and lifestyles.
- Findings indicated that while affluent workers had home-centred lifestyles, they did not fully embody middle-class values, leading to the concept of a ‘new’ working class.
21
Q
affluent workers research context
A
- The study was conducted in Luton, a prosperous town in southeast England.
- Researchers focused on affluent manual workers and their families.
- Structured interviews were used to gather data on attitudes, lifestyles, and political views.
22
Q
findings of goldthorpe et al
A
- Goldthorpe and colleagues rejected the embourgeoisement thesis.
- They proposed the concept of a ‘new’ working class resembling the middle class.
- Affluent workers exhibited privatised, home-centred lifestyles and instrumental collectivism.
23
Q
instrumentalism and work attitudes
A
- Instrumentalism refers to viewing work as a means to an end, not for job satisfaction.
- Affluent workers sought to improve personal pay rather than societal change.
- Their collective actions were driven by individual interests rather than solidarity.
24
Q
comparison with devine’s findings
A
- Fiona Devine revisited the affluent worker study and found little change in working-class lifestyles.
- Devine noted that affluent workers were geographically mobile but still maintained ties with kin.
- Her findings suggested that working-class norms and values remained stable despite Goldthorpe’s conclusions.
25
definition and importance of social mobility
- Social mobility refers to movement between social classes in society.
- It is a key measure of societal openness and meritocracy.
- High mobility rates suggest that status is achieved rather than ascribed.
26
types of social mobility
- Intra-generational mobility: movement within an individual's lifetime (e.g., promotions).
- Inter-generational mobility: movement between generations (e.g., children achieving different class status than parents).
- Routes to mobility include education, marriage, and changes in occupational structures.
27
barriers to mobility
- Discrimination based on ethnicity or gender can hinder upward mobility.
- Lack of skills and educational credentials are significant barriers.
- The influence of class background remains strong despite individual achievements.
28
Class Alignment vs. Class Dealignment
- Class alignment refers to the historical trend where working-class individuals predominantly voted for Labour and middle-class individuals for Conservative parties. This pattern was prevalent until the 1970s.
- Class dealignment indicates a shift where social class is no longer a strong predictor of voting behavior, leading to more diverse voting patterns across different social classes.
- The decline in class alignment suggests that other factors, such as individual beliefs and party policies, have become more influential in voting decisions.
- Recent studies indicate that while class identities have weakened, a significant portion of the population still identifies with their class, with 60% identifying as working class according to the 2016 British Social Attitudes survey.
- The changing occupational structure, including the decline of traditional working-class jobs, has contributed to the blurring of class lines in contemporary society.
- Sociologists argue that class is now one of many social identities, alongside gender and ethnicity, that individuals navigate in their lives.
29
changes in class identity
- The working class has diminished in size due to the decline of manufacturing industries, leading to a transformation in class identities and community structures.
- The reduction in trade union membership since the 1970s has further weakened collective class identities among workers.
- Surveys from the 1950s showed a clear distinction in class identification, with manual workers identifying as working class and non-manual workers as middle class, a trend that has shifted in recent decades.
- Young people's experiences are increasingly similar across class lines, as they often work in mixed environments, such as call centers, alongside peers from different backgrounds.
- The concept of 'objective class' (based on economic factors) versus 'subjective class' (based on personal identification) highlights the complexity of class identity today.
- The importance of social background is debated, with some sociologists arguing that individual ability and motivation are more significant in determining occupational outcomes.
30
the impact of education on class
- The rise in further education and higher education participation among young people has contributed to a more meritocratic society, where qualifications play a crucial role in job allocation.
- The blending of social classes in educational settings has led to a more diverse experience for young people, challenging traditional class boundaries.
- The role of private education is still significant, as it often provides advantages in terms of networking and resources, impacting future opportunities.
- The changing nature of work, with more temporary and flexible job arrangements, has altered the traditional pathways to career success for young people.
- The influence of parents' social class and educational background remains, but its impact is increasingly moderated by individual effort and ability.
- The perception of class as a social identity is evolving, with many young people viewing it as one of several identities they navigate.
31
distinction between sex and gender
- 'Sex' refers to the biological differences between males and females, while 'gender' encompasses the social roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male or female.
- Gender identity is developed through socialization, where children learn to identify as masculine or feminine based on societal norms and expectations.
- The differentiation of children by gender begins at birth and continues through various socialization processes, including family, education, and media.
- Sociologists argue that socialization is highly gendered, preparing individuals for specific social roles related to their gender, such as breadwinner or caregiver.
- The concept of gender roles highlights how societal expectations shape individual behavior and identity from a young age.
- Understanding the distinction between sex and gender is crucial for analyzing gender inequality and social dynamics.
32
feminist perspective on gender
- Feminist sociologists examine how gender is socially constructed and the implications of this construction for power dynamics in society.
- Agencies of socialization, such as families and schools, play a critical role in teaching and reinforcing gender norms and expectations.
- Feminists argue that gender inequality is a fundamental source of division in society, with patriarchal structures benefiting men over women.
- The under-representation of women in political and economic power positions illustrates the ongoing challenges of achieving gender equality.
- Feminist theories emphasize the need to challenge traditional gender roles and advocate for equal opportunities across all sectors of society.
- The intersectionality of gender with other social identities, such as race and class, is essential for understanding the complexities of gender inequality.
33
gender and power dynamics
- The patriarchal nature of society means that men hold the majority of power in political and economic spheres, leading to systemic inequalities.
- Gender roles often dictate the distribution of rewards, with men typically receiving greater wealth and social status than women.
- The representation of women in leadership positions remains disproportionately low, highlighting the barriers to gender equality in decision-making roles.
- Feminist critiques of power structures call for a reevaluation of how society defines and rewards gendered behaviors and roles.
- The impact of gender on social mobility and occupational success is significant, with women often facing additional challenges compared to their male counterparts.
- Understanding gender as a social construct allows for a more nuanced analysis of power relations and the potential for social change.
34
key concepts of gender
- Gender refers to the social roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male or female, distinct from biological sex.
- Sociologists argue that gender is a social construct, learned through socialization processes rather than being innate or biological.
- Feminist perspectives highlight that society is patriarchal, meaning it is structured in a way that privileges male power over women.
35
gender and power dynamics
- Power dynamics in society often favor men, as seen in political representation, where the House of Commons is predominantly male and elite.
- The concept of 'male power' encompasses control over women's behavior in public, financial decision-making in families, and prevalence of domestic violence and sexual harassment.
- The crisis of masculinity is a contemporary issue where young men feel their traditional roles are threatened due to economic changes and educational underachievement.
36
the crisis of masculinity
- The crisis of masculinity is characterized by young men's feelings of insecurity regarding their roles in society, particularly in the context of declining job opportunities in traditional male-dominated sectors.
- Critics argue that while young men face challenges, young women also experience similar job market difficulties, complicating the narrative of a singular 'crisis'.
- This crisis is linked to broader societal changes, including women's increased participation in the workforce and shifts in educational achievement.
37
historical context of gender inequality
- Over the past 45 years, significant changes have occurred in gender equality, particularly in education and employment, influenced by laws like the Equal Pay Act (1970) and the Sex Discrimination Act (1975).
- Despite these advancements, gender inequalities persist, with women often earning less than men and facing barriers in career progression, such as the glass ceiling.
- The term 'sexism' encompasses discrimination based on sex, historically directed at women but also applicable to men in certain contexts.
38
employment stats
year 1971
men - 92% women - 53%
year 2013
men - 76% women - 67%
- The data shows a decline in men's employment rates and a rise in women's, indicating a shift towards greater gender parity in the workforce.
- However, men and women still tend to occupy different roles, with certain professions remaining heavily gendered.
39
factors contributing to gender pay gap
- The gender pay gap persists, with women earning approximately one-fifth less than men per hour on average, influenced by factors such as part-time work and career interruptions due to childcare.
- Women's triple shift, as described by Dunscombe and Marden (1995), includes paid work, domestic labor, and emotional labor, which disproportionately affects women's career advancement.
- Childcare provision in the UK is often inadequate or expensive, acting as a barrier for women seeking full-time employment.
40
the equality act 2010
- The Equality Act 2010 provides legal protection against discrimination for various groups, including those based on gender, race, disability, and age.
- It aims to consolidate and simplify previous anti-discrimination laws, ensuring that individuals are treated fairly in the workplace and other areas of public life.
- Despite the Act, many women still face inequalities in employment, particularly regarding pay and promotion opportunities.
41
ongoing changes and future directions - gender
- Despite legislative progress, gender inequalities remain entrenched in societal structures, necessitating ongoing advocacy and reform.
- Feminist approaches continue to explore the intersections of gender, life chances, and social inequality, emphasizing the need for comprehensive solutions.
- Future efforts must address both systemic barriers and cultural attitudes that perpetuate gender discrimination.
42
definition and context of ethnicity
- Ethnicity refers to a social group whose members share a common identity based on cultural traditions, religion, or language.
- Ethnic minorities are groups that differ from the majority population, which is often referred to as the ethnic majority.
- The UK is characterized by a diverse cultural landscape, including ethnic groups such as Irish, Polish, Greek Cypriot, Indian, and African-Caribbean.
- Sociologists argue that ethnicity, like class and gender, significantly influences individuals' life chances and access to power.
- Discrimination against ethnic groups can lead to systemic inequalities, affecting various aspects of life including employment and political representation.
43
the role of discrimination and prejudice - ethnicity
- Discrimination arises from prejudice, which is the preconceived judgment of individuals based on their ethnicity.
- Racial discrimination manifests when individuals are treated unfavorably due to their ethnic background, impacting their opportunities and rights.
- Historical context: The concept of race has been misused to justify oppression, such as during the colonization of Africa and Asia in the 19th century.
- Modern sociological perspectives reject biological definitions of race, emphasizing that racial differences are socially constructed.
- The persistence of prejudice and racism highlights the need for ongoing discussions about equality and representation.
44
assimilation vs multiculturalism
- The assimilation model suggests that immigrants should adopt the culture of the majority, often leading to the loss of their original cultural identity.
- Critics argue that this model undermines the value of cultural diversity and the contributions of minority groups to society.
- Multiculturalism promotes the coexistence of diverse cultures, advocating for the recognition and celebration of different ethnic identities.
- The debate over assimilation versus multiculturalism reflects broader societal attitudes towards diversity and inclusion.
45
representation in political power
- Data from the ONS (2015) indicates that 13% of the UK population identifies as minority ethnic, yet they are underrepresented in political positions.
- After the 2015 General Election, only 6.3% of MPs were from minority ethnic backgrounds, despite an increase in representation from previous years.
- The underrepresentation extends to senior civil service roles and law enforcement, with only 3.4% of senior police officers being from minority ethnic backgrounds.
- In contrast, over 40% of NHS doctors in England were from minority ethnic backgrounds, indicating varying levels of representation across sectors.
- The judiciary also reflects underrepresentation, with only 5% of judges identifying as BAME, although younger judges show slightly higher diversity.
46
initiatives addressing ethnic inequality
- Legislative measures such as the 1976 Race Relations Act and the Equality Act 2010 aim to combat discrimination and promote equality.
- The establishment of the Equality and Human Rights Commission seeks to address systemic discrimination and promote equal opportunities.
- Recognition of institutional racism, particularly in organizations like the Metropolitan Police, has led to calls for reform and accountability.
- Equal opportunities policies in education and employment are designed to support diversity and inclusion.
- Despite progress, some argue that significant inequalities persist, particularly in employment and education.
47
unemployment rates by ethnicity
- Unemployment is a critical indicator of social inequality, linked to broader issues such as poverty and health.
- Data from 2015 shows significant disparities in unemployment rates among different ethnic groups, with Black individuals facing the highest rates.
- Young people aged 16-24 experience higher unemployment rates across all ethnic groups compared to older age groups.
48
employment opportunities and earnings - ethnicity
- Research by Li et al. (2008) indicates that employment opportunities vary significantly among ethnic groups, particularly for men.
Indian and Chinese ethnic groups tend to have similar employment chances as their White British peers, while Black Caribbean men face greater challenges.
- Earnings disparities are evident, with Pakistani and Bangladeshi men earning significantly less than their White counterparts.
- The persistence of these inequalities highlights the need for targeted policies to improve employment outcomes for minority ethnic groups.
49
discrimination in the labour market - ethnicity
- Evidence indicates that discrimination based on ethnicity persists in the labour market, affecting life chances and quality of life for minority ethnic groups.
- Educational qualifications improve life chances for all ethnic groups, yet prejudice remains a barrier to employment opportunities (Li et al., 2008).
- Equality laws exist but are challenging to enforce, leading to ongoing disparities in employment.
- Case Study: The experiences of Indian and Pakistani/Bangladeshi ethnic groups show differing employment outcomes, complicating generalizations about minority ethnic experiences.
- Gender and social class intersect with ethnicity, further influencing employment opportunities and experiences.
50
the underclass and new right perspectives
- New Right theorist Charles Murray (1984) posits that welfare systems contribute to the formation of an underclass, particularly among African-American and Hispanic communities in the USA.
- This underclass is characterized by a lack of interest in employment, perpetuating cycles of poverty and unemployment.
- Critics argue that this perspective oversimplifies complex socio-economic issues and ignores systemic barriers faced by minority groups.
51
marxist perspectives on ethnicity and labour
- Marxists argue that racism is embedded in capitalism, creating a 'reserve army of labour' that can be exploited during economic booms and discarded during recessions.
- This reserve army keeps wages low, as workers are aware of their replaceability, particularly affecting minority ethnic groups and working-class women.
- Historical context: The role of economic structures in perpetuating inequality highlights the intersection of race, class, and gender.
52
age: chronological vs biological
- Chronological age refers to the number of years a person has lived, influencing rights and responsibilities (e.g., voting, drinking age).
- Biological age encompasses physical changes and development stages, such as puberty and aging signs like grey hair.
- Sociologists emphasize that age is not just a biological measure but a social construct influenced by cultural expectations.
53
social expectations and attitudes towards age
- Societal attitudes towards age can be reflected in expressions like 'Act your age!' and 'You can't teach an old dog new tricks,' which may carry offensive connotations.
- Expectations surrounding age vary historically and cross-culturally, affecting how individuals are treated based on perceived age.
- Example: A 78-year-old engaging in skateboarding challenges societal norms about aging.
54
historical changes in childhood
- Historical perspectives, such as Ariès (1962), show that children were once viewed as small adults, participating in work and leisure from a young age.
- The 19th-century prevalence of child labor highlights the economic exploitation of children, contrasting sharply with contemporary views that protect children's rights.
- Legal changes since the Victorian era have shifted perceptions of childhood, emphasizing protection and education over labor.
55
power dynamics in childhood
- Families serve as agencies of social control, with parents traditionally holding authority over children.
- Recent shifts have led to more democratic relationships between parents and children, recognizing children's rights and voices.
- The changing power dynamics reflect broader societal changes in attitudes towards authority and childhood.
56
the concept of youth in contemporary society
- Youth is recognized as a distinct stage of development, marked by transitions such as increased independence and full-time employment.
- The emergence of 'teenagers' as a social category in the 1950s introduced new cultural identities and subcultures, defined by fashion and music.
- Youth experiences are not uniform; they vary significantly based on gender, ethnicity, social class, and location.
57
factors influencing transition to adulthood
- Many young people remain financially dependent on their families into their twenties, complicating the transition to adulthood.
- Economic factors, such as the cost of living and job availability, impact young people's ability to achieve independence.
- The transition is often non-linear, with many young adults navigating education, employment, and family dynamics simultaneously.
58
intersectionality in youth experiences
- Youth experiences are shaped by intersecting identities, including gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status.
- Understanding these intersections is crucial for addressing inequalities faced by different youth groups in society.
- Example: Young women from minority ethnic backgrounds may face unique challenges in education and employment compared to their male counterparts.
59
emergence of youth culture
- The concept of 'teenagers' as a distinct social category emerged in the 1950s, characterized by unique styles, music preferences, and social behaviors.
- Youth subcultures can be identified through their fashion choices, hairstyles, and musical tastes, reflecting broader societal changes during this period.
- The rise of consumer culture in the post-war era contributed to the formation of youth identities, with brands targeting young people specifically.
60
transition to adulthood
- The transition from childhood to adulthood is complex and varies significantly among individuals, influenced by factors such as social class, gender, and ethnicity.
- Many young people remain financially dependent on their parents into their twenties, complicating the traditional view of adulthood.
- The unemployment rate for young people (ages 16-24) is notably higher than for older demographics, with specific minority groups facing even greater challenges.
61
educational and employment challenges
- A significant number of young people (843,000 in the UK as of 2016) were classified as NEET (Not in Education, Employment, or Training), highlighting barriers to successful transitions into adulthood.
- Access to higher education and secure employment is often limited by educational qualifications, with many young people relegated to low-paid, insecure jobs.
- Financial support from families can play a crucial role in enabling young people to pursue higher education or unpaid internships.
62
power dynamics in youth relationships
- Power dynamics in youth relationships, particularly in educational settings, have evolved, with teachers historically exercising authority through coercive means, such as physical punishment.
- The shift towards more democratic and informal teacher-student relationships reflects broader societal changes in attitudes towards authority and youth empowerment.
- The role of youth subcultures can challenge traditional power structures, as seen in studies like Paul Willis's work on counter-school cultures.
63
historical context of age and retirement
- The concept of retirement is relatively recent, with state pensions introduced in the UK in 1908, marking a significant shift in societal views on aging and work.
- Prior to the mid-20th century, older individuals worked until they could no longer do so, reflecting different societal values regarding aging and productivity.
- In contemporary society, aging is often viewed negatively, leading to practices aimed at defying the aging process, such as cosmetic procedures.
64
ageism and its impacts
- Ageism refers to discrimination based on age, affecting both young and older individuals, often leading to negative stereotypes and barriers in employment.
- The Employment Equality (Age) Regulations of 2006 and the Equality Act 2010 were established to combat age discrimination in various sectors, including employment and services.
- Statistics show a significant number of age discrimination claims, indicating the prevalence of this issue in society.
65
variability among older adults
- Older adults cannot be viewed as a homogenous group; their experiences and social positions vary widely based on factors such as class, gender, and ethnicity.
- The life chances of older individuals can differ dramatically, with some enjoying affluent lifestyles while others face poverty and social exclusion.
- The intersectionality of age with other social divisions highlights the complexity of experiences among older adults, such as the challenges faced by a working-class, widowed Black woman compared to a middle-class, married White man.
66
poverty among older adults
- Many pensioners live on low incomes, with those relying solely on state pensions being particularly vulnerable to poverty.
- The risk of poverty in older age is influenced by social class, with middle-class individuals more likely to have occupational pensions that provide financial security.
- Understanding the economic disparities among older adults is crucial for addressing age-related inequalities in society.
67
discrimination based on sexuality disability and religion
- The Equality Act 2010 protects individuals from discrimination based on characteristics such as disability, religion, and sexuality, yet life chances remain affected by these factors.
- Homophobia, defined as negative attitudes towards gay men and lesbian women, can lead to reduced opportunities in education and employment.
- Islamophobia refers to prejudice against Muslims, impacting their life chances through discrimination in various sectors.
- Disablism, or prejudice against individuals with disabilities, creates barriers in education and the workplace, limiting their participation in society.
- Lister (2008) highlights that additional costs associated with disabilities, such as special diets and transport, contribute to higher poverty rates among disabled individuals.
- The labor market presents challenges for people with disabilities, who often face lower employment rates and are more likely to be in low-paid jobs.
68
hate crimes and their impact
- Hate crimes are motivated by hostility towards individuals based on their sexual orientation, disability, or religion, leading to significant social consequences.
- Legislation exists to protect vulnerable groups, including disabled individuals, LGBTQ+ community members, and ethnic minorities, from hate crimes.
- The concept of scapegoating illustrates how certain groups are blamed for broader societal issues, exacerbating social inequality and resentment.
- The UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (2016) reported a rise in hate crimes against ethnic minorities during the Brexit referendum, highlighting the role of political rhetoric in fostering prejudice.
- Media portrayal of ethnic and ethno-religious communities often worsens after terrorist attacks, contributing to negative stereotypes and societal division.
- Anti-terrorism measures have created an atmosphere of suspicion towards Muslims, further marginalizing this community.
69
the role of the paralympic games
- The Paralympic Games serve as a platform to challenge public perceptions of disability and promote inclusivity in sports.
- Discussions around the impact of the Paralympics on societal attitudes towards disability can reveal shifts in public opinion and acceptance.
- The juxtaposition of the Paralympic and Olympic Games raises questions about the visibility and representation of disabled athletes in mainstream media.
- Stephanie Millward MBE's achievements in the Rio 2016 Paralympics exemplify the potential for athletes with disabilities to inspire change and challenge stereotypes.
- Group discussions can explore whether the Paralympics have a lasting positive impact on public perceptions of disability and sports participation.
- The event's success may depend on its integration with the Olympic Games, affecting the message conveyed about disability in sports.
70
understanding wealth and income
- Wealth is defined as the ownership of valuable assets, including property, savings, and investments, while income refers to the flow of resources received over time, such as wages and benefits.
- High-income individuals often have access to better healthcare and education options, illustrating how wealth influences life chances.
- Wealth can be inherited, creating disparities in opportunities across generations, while income can be generated through various means, including employment and welfare.
- Marketable assets, such as real estate and stocks, play a significant role in an individual's overall wealth.
- The distinction between wealth and income is crucial for understanding economic inequality and its impact on life chances.
- The accumulation of wealth can lead to increased social mobility for some, while others remain trapped in cycles of poverty.
71
distribution inequality in the UK
- Research by Roberts (2001) indicates significant inequalities in wealth and income distribution in the UK, with wealth being more unevenly distributed than income.
- The wealthiest 10% of households owned 45% of the total wealth in Britain between 2012 and 2014, while the bottom 50% owned only 9%.
- Residential buildings are the most significant component of household wealth, highlighting the importance of property ownership in wealth accumulation.
- The concept of the 'super-rich' refers to multimillionaires who possess a disproportionate share of wealth, exacerbating economic inequality.
- Understanding the distribution of wealth and income is essential for addressing social stratification and its effects on life chances.
- Policies aimed at wealth redistribution may be necessary to mitigate the effects of inequality on vulnerable populations.
72
overview of wealth distribution
- The top 50% of the population owns 91% of overall wealth, highlighting significant inequality.
- The bottom 50% only owns 9% of wealth, indicating a stark contrast in wealth distribution.
- The concept of the 'super-rich' includes multimillionaires who derive wealth from shares in various sectors such as industry and finance.
- Upper-class landowners often inherit their wealth, perpetuating economic disparities across generations.
73
income distribution in the uk
- Income is unevenly distributed among households, with the richest fifth earning 14 times more than the poorest fifth before taxes and benefits.
- After taxes and benefits, the income gap narrows, with the richest fifth earning four times more than the poorest fifth.
- Life chances, including access to education and health services, are closely linked to income levels.
- Redistribution of income occurs through taxes and benefits, which aim to alleviate poverty and support lower-income households.
74
the concept of the overclass
- The 'overclass' refers to a small group of very wealthy individuals who hold significant power and influence in society.
- This group is often associated with corporate leaders who evade taxes and contribute to environmental degradation.
- The overclass is linked to political power, with members often having elite educational backgrounds and connections to government.
- Peter Beresford (2013) argues that the overclass poses a greater threat to societal values than the underclass.
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defining power
- Power is a central concept in sociology, focusing on the relationships and inequalities between individuals and groups.
- Max Weber (1947) defined power as the ability to achieve desired outcomes despite opposition.
- Power can be exercised through influence, coercion, or authority, impacting social dynamics.
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sources of power according to Weber
- Power can be derived from coercion, where individuals are forced to obey against their will, often through threats or violence.
- Authority is a more accepted form of power, where individuals willingly comply due to perceived legitimacy.
- Weber identified three types of authority: traditional, rational-legal, and charismatic, each with distinct characteristics.
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types of authority
- Traditional Authority: Based on customs and traditions, such as the authority of the monarchy in the UK.
- Rational-Legal Authority: Based on established laws and rules, such as a manager's authority in a workplace setting.
- Charismatic Authority: Derived from an individual's exceptional personal qualities, exemplified by leaders like Nelson Mandela.
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marxist perspectives on power
- Marxist theory links power to social class, with the bourgeoisie holding power through ownership of production means.
- The proletariat, or working class, is often seen as disenfranchised and lacking power in capitalist societies.
- This perspective emphasizes the role of economic structures in shaping power dynamics and social inequalities.
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overview of marxist theory
- Karl Marx (1818-1883) emphasized the link between power and social class relationships, arguing that the bourgeoisie (owners of production) hold power over the proletariat (working class).
- The bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat through their economic dominance, which translates into political power.
- Marxist theory posits that political power is derived from economic power, creating a cycle of oppression.
- Case Study: The Industrial Revolution exemplifies the rise of the bourgeoisie and the exploitation of workers in factories.
- Historical Context: Marx's ideas emerged during the rise of capitalism, highlighting class struggles that continue to resonate today.
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authority and coersion
- Authority is based on consent and agreement, while coercion relies on force and intimidation.
- Weber's definition of power includes both authority and coercion, suggesting that power dynamics are complex and multifaceted.
- Example: A police officer (authority) versus a criminal (coercion) illustrates the different sources of power.
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Weber's types of authorities
- Max Weber identified three types of authority: traditional, rational-legal, and charismatic.
- Traditional authority is based on established customs and practices, such as monarchy.
- Rational-legal authority derives from established laws and procedures, exemplified by government officials.
- Charismatic authority is based on the personal appeal and extraordinary characteristics of a leader, such as Martin Luther King Jr.
- Example: The pope embodies traditional authority, while a village elder may represent a blend of traditional and charismatic authority.
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authority in practise
- Authority can manifest in various roles, such as religious leaders or office managers, who may exercise multiple types of authority.
- Discussion Activity: Analyze how different figures (e.g., police officer, lollipop lady) exemplify different types of authority.
- Key Point: Authority is not static; individuals can shift between types based on context and influence.
- Example: A religious leader may use charismatic authority to inspire followers while also exercising traditional authority within their community.
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overview of feminist theories
- Feminist perspectives critique Marxist and Weberian views for neglecting gender dynamics in power relationships.
- Feminists argue that patriarchy is a central structure of power that oppresses women across various domains.
- Key Concept: Double standards in society highlight gender inequalities, such as differing societal views on sexual behavior between men and women.
- Historical Context: The feminist movement has evolved, addressing issues of gender inequality in both public and private spheres.
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sylvia Walby's contributions
- Sylvia Walby (1990) defines patriarchy as a system where men dominate and exploit women through social structures.
- She identifies six patriarchal structures: paid work, housework, culture, sexuality, violence, and the state.
- Example: In paid work, women often earn less and are excluded from higher-paying jobs, reflecting systemic inequality.
- Walby argues that while there have been changes in gender dynamics, patriarchal structures persist in various forms.
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coercion in relationships
- The Serious Crime Act 2015 criminalizes controlling or coercive behavior in intimate relationships, highlighting the legal recognition of power dynamics.
- Examples of coercive behavior include isolation, monitoring, and financial control, which reflect power imbalances.
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marxism vs feminism
- Marxism views power as concentrated in the hands of the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, while feminism emphasizes the patriarchal structures that allow men to dominate women.
- Sylvia Walby argues that patriarchal structures exploit women, highlighting the intersection of gender and class in power dynamics.
- Both perspectives critique the status quo but focus on different power structures: Marxism on economic power and feminism on gender power.
- Case Study: The impact of the Industrial Revolution on gender roles, where women were often relegated to domestic spheres while men dominated the workforce.
- Historical Context: The suffrage movement in the early 20th century, which sought to address gender inequalities in political power.
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power in political processes
- Power in political systems can be exercised through democratic means, where citizens have a say, or through authoritarian regimes, where power is concentrated.
-Democracy is defined as 'government by the people', contrasting with dictatorship, where power is held by a single ruler or party.
- In the UK, the electoral system is 'first-past-the-post', which can lead to wasted votes and disproportionate representation.
- Proportional representation (PR) allows for a more equitable distribution of power among political parties, as seen in European Parliament elections.
- The role of state institutions (police, judiciary, etc.) is crucial in maintaining order and enforcing laws, reflecting the state's authority.
- Critique: The effectiveness of democracy is often questioned, especially regarding the influence of money and lobbying in politics.
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approaches to the state
- Pluralism posits that power is distributed among various interest groups, preventing any single group from dominating the political landscape.
- The conflict approach argues that power is held by a privileged minority, often from elite backgrounds, who shape policies to benefit their interests.
- Key Figures: Sociologists like C. Wright Mills and Robert Dahl have contributed to the understanding of power dynamics in society.
- Example: The role of trade unions and social movements in advocating for workers' rights and social justice.
- Historical Context: The rise of new social movements in the 1960s and 1970s, such as feminism and civil rights, challenged existing power structures.
- Implications: Understanding these approaches helps analyze current political issues and the representation of marginalized groups.
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role of pressure groups
- Pressure groups are essential in a democracy, allowing citizens to organize and advocate for their interests.
- New social movements, such as environmentalism and anti-racism, emerged to challenge societal norms and push for change.
- The conflict perspective highlights that some groups, particularly those with economic power, can disproportionately influence policy decisions.
- Case Study: The impact of the environmental movement on legislation regarding climate change and sustainability.
- Example: The influence of large corporations on government policies, often sidelining smaller interest groups.
- Evaluation: The effectiveness of pressure groups in achieving their goals and the challenges they face in a competitive political landscape.
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methods of research
- Various methods are employed to study social stratification, including qualitative interviews, surveys, and observational studies.
- Qualitative research, such as intensive interviews, provides in-depth insights into individuals' experiences and perspectives.
- Example: Fiona Devine's research on affluent workers highlights the complexities of social class and identity.
- Quantitative methods, like surveys, allow for broader generalizations but may lack depth in understanding individual experiences.
- Evaluation: Each method has strengths and weaknesses, and a mixed-methods approach can provide a more comprehensive understanding.
- Historical Context: The evolution of research methods in sociology, from early observational studies to contemporary mixed-methods approaches.
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fiona devine interviews
- Fiona Devine employed qualitative interviews, specifically semi-structured interviews, allowing for open-ended responses.
- This method enables participants to express their thoughts and feelings in their own words, providing rich, detailed data.
- The interviews were conducted separately with men and women to explore gender differences in perspectives on daily life.
- The focus was on various aspects of life, including work, family, and social interactions, which are crucial for understanding social dynamics.
- The qualitative nature of the interviews allows for deeper insights into the participants' lived experiences.
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advantages of using interviews
- Interviews provide in-depth qualitative data that can reveal complex social phenomena.
- They allow for flexibility in questioning, enabling the interviewer to probe deeper based on responses.
- Participants may feel more comfortable discussing sensitive topics in a one-on-one setting, leading to more honest and revealing answers.
- The method can uncover unexpected themes and insights that structured surveys might miss.
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disadvantages of using interviews
- Interviews can be time-consuming to conduct and analyze, especially with a large sample size.
- The quality of data can be influenced by the interviewer's skills and biases, potentially affecting the reliability of the findings.
- There is a risk of social desirability bias, where participants may provide answers they think are more acceptable rather than their true feelings.
- The findings may not be generalizable due to the non-random sampling method.
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linking social strat to families
- Power dynamics within families can reflect broader social stratification, influencing authority and decision-making.
- Lone-parent families often face economic challenges, highlighting the intersection of family structure and poverty.
- Same-sex marriages challenge traditional notions of family and can promote discussions on equality and social mobility.
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linking social strat to education
- Educational institutions can perpetuate class-based inequalities, affecting access to resources and opportunities.
- Cultural deprivation can lead to underachievement among certain social groups, reinforcing stratification.
- Material deprivation impacts educational achievement, creating a cycle of disadvantage for low-income families.
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