Crime and Deviance - Paper 3 Flashcards

Question

What is the bond belief? (Functionalist)

Answer 1

How strongly do we feel we should abide by the rules of society?

Answer 2

We need a nuclear family structure it is more likely to occur in SPF with no male role model

Answer 3

White collar crime might be missed it doesn't explain why this occurs. Someone with more power can cover up their crimes. Anyone can commit crime. Marxists would say capitalism causes crime not inadequate socialisation. CJS favours MC so WC seen to happen more. Ignores crimes of passion, spur of the moment and focuses on utilitarian crime

Answer 4

1. Assue that there is inital value consensus that we deviate from. Taylor et al argue that this is wrong and not everyone buys into mainstream goals. For example, some sects reject the struggle for material success 2. They don't explain why white middle calss commit crime 3. They rely on the patterns shown in stats and many crimes are not reported or may not be classified in a way that shows the reality 4. They claim that youths are committed to values of delinquency and this cannot be true as most stop committing crime by adulthood 5. Matza criticises them for implying that delinquents have different norms and values to the rest of society, they still reject crime as do most people but justify their own actions through techniques of neutralisation

Answer 5

Explain deviance in terms of a particular social group. Certain social groups develop norms and values that are different from those held by other members of society. Subcultural theory usually focuses on why working class people commit crime - they focus on juvenile delinquency - which is often malicious and not linked to material or financial goals. They often seek to explain why juvenile delinquency has a collective character

Answer 6

Lower working class boys want success but cannot achieve their goals because cultural deprivation leads to educational failure and dead-end jobs --> They suffer from status frustration and turn to criminal paths to achieve success --> An alternative set of norms and values is adopted - a delinquent subculture - which reverse mainstream culture by valuing activities such as stealing, vandalism and truancy

Answer 7

Cohen's work updated Merton's position and combined both structural and subcultural theories of deviance. He argues that individuals want status, respect and to feel values - if this was not achieved it led to status frustration

Answer 8

It is deterministic and a generalised statement to say all lower working class boys will suffer from status frustration, Girls can have status frustration too. Marxists would say that it isn't cultural deprivation causing it but the bourgeoisie keeping the WC WC. Box argues that Cohen's theory only applies to a minority of delinquents. The rest accept mainstream standards of success but resent being seen as failures and turn against those who they feel look down on them

Answer 9

Accept Merton's explanation of deviance in terms of the legitimate opportunity structure, but they argue that he failed to consider the illegitimate opportunity structure. For some subcultures an illegal career was available and this meant they could achieve societal goals. There is greater pressure on the WC to deviate because they have less opportunity to succeed by legitimate means. They identified 3 responses

Answer 10

Criminal, conflict and retreatist subculture

Answer 11

They are criticised by utilitarian crimes such as theft. They develop in stable working class areas. This provides a learning structure and career path for aspiring young criminals as an alternative to the legitimate job market

Answer 12

These are usually in socially disorganised areas with a high population turnover and lack of social cohesion. They engage in violence and gang warfare - status is achieved through violent acts

Answer 13

Emerge amongst the lowest classes these are double failures, they have failed to achieve in mainstream society and illegitimate structures. The response is often drug and alcohol abuse, paid for by theft and prostitution

Answer 14

1. Taylor, Walton and Young criticise Merton, Cloward and Ohlin for assuming that everybody is committed to the success goal of achieving wealth. They point out the existence of other possible goals and note that certain groups, such as hippies make a conscious choice to reject conventional goals 2. South believes that the three subcultures are too distinct and that one subculture often emerges into another. Many drug addicts in retreatist subcultures are also money making drug dealers. Also goods stolen to buy drugs for retreatists may be sold within criminal subcultures

Answer 15

People will turn to illegitimate means due to things such as the cost of living crisis. A rise in shoplifting and theft. Rise in retreatism so reject goals and means out of frustration

Answer 16

Lower classes had their own distinctive values which were passed on from generation to generation and which actively encouraged lower-class men to break the law. He identified 6 focal concerns of the lower class.

Answer 17

Smartness, trouble, excitement, toughness, autonomy and fate. Miller believed that delinquency was the result of an exaggerated conformity to these focal concerns

Answer 18

A person should be both witty and look food

Answer 19

"I don't go looking for it BUT..."

Answer 20

It is important to search out thrills

Answer 21

Being physically stronger than others is good and it is important to demonstrate this

Answer 22

It is important not to be pushed around by others

Answer 23

Individuals have little chance to overcome the wider fate that awaits them

Answer 24

It can be applied to all classes e.g., upper classes gamble for thrills and take drugs for excitement. They may have autonomy because they don't want to be pushed around

Answer 25

Miller provides little evidence to show that these are specifically lower class values. They could apply to males and potentially females across the class structure. Especially with the rise of ladette culture - 80s/90s drink till you black out culture, engaging in heavy drinking

Answer 26

- Studied a group of boys called 'the lads' - They believed themselves to be superior teachers and other pupils - They had no interest in gaining academic qualifications - They did as little work as possible, and passed the time with bad behaviour - They were unhappy at being treated like children, and felt they belonged in the adult world - They formed a counter-school subculture - this was racist, sexist and valued working class masculinity - Can link to Miller and focal concerns and Cloward and Ohlin's illegitimate opportunity structure

Answer 27

Conducted research, in 1974, into delinquents in Liverpool. At the time, there was a trend whereby Liverpool youths would regularly steal car radios and become involved in similar behaviour. Parker was open about being a researcher and was keen to ask questions about the relationship between gang members. Parker discovered that the boys in his study stole consumer products in order to feel part of the community from whom they were stealing. Criminal subculture, innovators and illegitimate opportunity structure

Answer 28

His research is regarded as highly valuable for the insight it gave into gang culture in America and the impact of a gang on an area. He originally entered the housing projects with the aim of conducting interviews with young, black men living in poverty. The gang was reluctant to talk at first and he was met with open hostility and threats of violence. Venkatesh observed the behaviour of gang members at all levels in the Black Kings and found the structure of the gang to be hierarchical and highly organised. Most foot soldiers in drug gangs made only $3.30 an hours and JT made little more than a junior manager in the shop. Conflict and criminal subcultures

Answer 29

They are the underclass and it happens due to perverse incentives, dependency culture, deviant families, culture of criminality and poverty

Answer 30

Rejects Murray's views but accepts that an underclass does exist. He believes that young, unskilled working class males have been affected by increasing inequality and declining job prospects. Underclass criminal activity is a result of material deprivation rather than unacceptable culture and a lack of norms and values

Answer 31

Marxists would say that the underclass are negatively labelled to keep them from having power. These negative labels such as criminals may lead to a SFP and them committing crime. Creates a moral panic. In a capitalist society the bourgeoisie don't want revolution and blame it on benefit scroungers and illegal immigrants when it is the upper class greed which causes poverty. HEGEMONIC CURTAIN

Answer 32

Compared welfare policies and crime rates in Britain and Sweden. He found that in the 1980's crime had increased much faster in Britain than Sweden despite Sweden having a more generous welfare state. This shows that having a generous welfare state doesn't always cause complacency. Those on benefits aren't all scroungers, it is a generalisation

Answer 33

Argues there is no link between SPF and criminality. SPF are more likely to be victims of crime. This shows that you cannot say that all SPF will be the offender. Feminists would say that portraying SPF as the reason for crime would be misogynistic. The New Right are using it to push across their values of traditional values but evidence opposes this

Answer 34

Taylor et al: criticise Merton, Cohen and Cloward and Ohlin for assuming that everyone is committed to achieving wealth and ignore other life goals Davide Matza: argues that delinquents are, to a considerable extent, committed to the same values as other members of society. Deviance becomes possible when techniques of neutralisation' are sued which temporarily release them from the hold society has over them

Answer 35

Condemnation of condemners, appeal to higher loyalties, denial of responsibility, denial of victims and denial of injury

Answer 36

The offender feels a sense of unfairness of being picked on for something others have done and not been punished for

Answer 37

The offender claims that the rule or law had to be ignored because more important issues were at stake. The offender was for example standing ip for his family/community/race

Answer 38

The offender denies that is was their fault it wasn't me it was alcohol/drugs

Answer 39

The offender claims that in this particular case the victim was in the wrong - for example in a rape case where the woman was dressed in a way that led them on

Answer 40

The offender claims that the victim was not really hurt or harmed by the crime. Often used to justify theft from a company as opposed to stealing from individuals

Answer 41

Once potential delinquents have freed themselves from social constraints, they are in a state of DRIFT and may go on to commit deviant acts. Matza explains the attraction of deviance in therms of SUBTERRANEAN VALUES. These values encourage enjoying yourself, acting on the spur of the moment, being aggressive and seeking excitement. Respectable members of society only express these values at carefully controlled moments, but delinquents express them at inappropriate times for example, seeking excitement at school or being aggressive while at work. Looks at why people commit crime - not always financial gain. More inclusive of other types of crime: joyriding

Answer 42

- Questions why some acts by some people come to be regarded as criminal - For this reason, it is often called labelling theory - They believe that no act is criminal or deviant in itself - Certain acts become criminal or deviant because society defines them as such

Answer 43

It is acceptable on TV or beaches but unacceptable when there are underage children. Leaning occurs through social interaction and the help of others. Social constructivism has changed nudity was accepted in Ancient Greece

Answer 44

Labelling theory. People are labelled with things such as criminal or non-criminal. Through the SFP people live up to these labels because they have been told what they are so believe it to be true and act upon it. Someone who is labelled as criminal may carry out criminal acts because of their label

Answer 45

1. Moral entrepreneurs label individuals and their behaviour as deviant 2. Once an individual or group is labelled e.g., as criminal, deviant or mentally ill, others see them only in terms of that label 3. It becomes what Becker calls a master status 4. Labelling also causes the labelled group or individual to see themselves in terms of the label 5. This may produce a SFP in which the label actually makes itself become true 6. Develop a deviant career

Answer 46

There is no such thing as a deviant act. An act only becomes deviant when it is perceived that way by individuals in society. Becker suggests that the police operate with pre-existing conceptions and stereotypical ideas of what constitutes as a 'criminal' and criminal areas etc. This affects the response they have to these individuals

Answer 47

- Homosexuality - was illegal, no legal due to things like protests - Women working - men left for WW2 so women had to take over - Women's vote - Suffragettes protested and had hunger strikes

Answer 48

Media can sensationalise and exaggerate the reporting of crime and deviance. The term moral panic was used to describe this process. It is based on a false or exaggerated idea that some group's behaviour is deviant and is a menace to society. Groups are referred to as folk devils.

Answer 49

The media use things such has hair styles, items of clothing, modes of transport etc, as icons of trouble makers. Symbolisation --> exaggeration and distortion --> prediction of further trouble

Answer 50

How HIV/AIDS was reported Homosexual people - folk devils Derogatory phrases such as gay plague

Answer 51

Bourgeoisie are in control of media so can identify a folk devil to create a moral panic. This means people are against a certain group which distracts them from the real issues of society - Hegemonic curtain

Answer 52

Participant observation studying 'hippie' marijuana users in London over 2 years to demonstrate how media generates deviant behaviour. He found that the police had a media derived stereotype of hippie drug users as junkies and layabouts – Marijuana users feel prosecuted by the police. The Police then united marijuana users by making them feel like outsiders. In self-defence the hippies then retreated into a closed group united around marijuana smoking and deviant norms and values. They were then defined and treated as outsiders- they expressed this difference through radical dress sense and long hair – a drug subculture was developed. The original police stereotype was created and confirmed- self-fulfilling prophecy. Their opportunities for normality are then reduced because of labelling, the drug problem is amplified. Then drugs charges may lead to segregation and also the possibility of a normal life is reduced and may lead to a deviant career.

Answer 53

Researcher bias which affect validity - he took part in the activities. Results may favour the group. He was also using drugs so this may have affected him

Answer 54

Insignificant acts that have not been publicly labelled for example speeding or stealing stationery from work. There are no consequences as long as nobody finds out

Answer 55

This is the result of a societal reaction. Being caught and publicly labelled as deviant and stigmatised by society

Answer 56

Examined the treatment of mental patients in institutions and his findings illustrate the idea of Lemert’s secondary deviance. He found how deviance can actually be created by the societal reaction to it. When inmates arrive in the mental hospital, pressure is placed on them to accept the institution’s definition of them as ‘mentally ill’. The inmates’ individuality is removed through what Goffman calls a MORTIFICATION PROCESS

Answer 57

- No freedom/independence (constantly watched and assessed) - No freedom of expression (uniform and regulation clothes) - Patients washed, disinfected and hair cut - Given a number ID - They decide the schedule for the day not the patient/prisoner (strict regime) - Part of a collective

Answer 58

It leaves inmates unprepared for life on the outside, they become institutionalised because some accept the label of deviant, others believe they are unable to function on the outside, even if they do leave they will be labelled as an ex-mental patient

Answer 59

Disintegrative and reintegrative shaming

Answer 60

Where not only the crime, but the person is labelled negatively and is excluded from society e.g., child sex offenders

Answer 61

Whereby the act is labelled, but not the person e.g., petty crime. Braithwaite argues that the second type of shaming has a more positive role. It avoids stigmatising the offender whilst still making them, and others, aware of the negative impact of their offence. This encourages forgiveness and acceptance back into society. It avoids pushing people back into secondary deviance

Answer 62

- Sex offenders - Rapists - Murderers - Pedophiles

Answer 63

officers TYPIFICATIONS – their common-sense theories or stereotypes of what the typical delinquent is like – led them to concentrate on certain ‘types’. these typifications led to the higher arrest of certain groups of people and also increased police presence in areas that had a higher density of people that fit the typification – leading to more arrests of the people living in these areas. Other agents of social control within the criminal justice system reinforced this bias. For example, probation officers held the common-sense theory that juvenile delinquency was caused by broken homes, poverty and lax parenting. Therefore, they tended to see youths from such backgrounds as likely to offend in the future and were less likely to support non-custodial sentences for them.

Answer 64

Justice is not fixed but negotiable. When a middle-class youth was arrested, he was less likely to be charged. This was partly because his background did not fit the idea of the police’s ‘typical delinquent’, and partly because his parents were more likely to be able to NEGOTIATE successfully on his behalf, convincing the control agencies that he was sorry, that they would monitor him and ensure he stayed out of trouble in future, etc. As a result, typically, he was ‘counselled, warned and released, rather than prosecuted. Good lawyers cost money but are good

Answer 65

If someone has less cultural capital they are likely to be a police typification. These people are working class and these typifications are enforced by the RC as a hegemonic curtain

Answer 66

This is because these people are the ones stopped and arrested most because of police typifications creating an inaccurate representation of who commits crime

Answer 67

1. Provides insights into nature of deviance not provided by structural theories 2. It challenges the idea that deviants are different to normal people 3. It shows the importance of the reactions of others in creating and defining deviance. It shows the impact of labelling and provides a reason why crime occurs 4. It reveals the importance of stereotyping with typifications and how this can warp statistics 5. It shows how far official stats are socially constructed by police bias rather than fact. This is because of them being as result of police typifications 6. It reveals the role of those in power in defining what is deviant. This can act as a hegemonic curtain so no one sees the crimes they do 7. It highlights the role of moral entrepreneurs like the media when defining and creating deviance 8. It shows how labelling can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy 9. It shows the potential impact of moral panics and how they can increase a problem

Answer 68

1. It removes the blame for deviance off the individual; the deviant becomes a victim of labelling. A person can say they commit crime because they were labelled in that way which diminishes responsibility 2. It assumes acts are not deviant until they are labelled as such but we often know acts are deviant before anyone is aware that they have taken place. 3. It doesn’t look at the causes of deviance that precede the labelling process or the different acts e.g. theft is different to murder. 4. It is too deterministic – it doesn’t show how some people choose 6to be deviant, also labelling won’t always lead to an SFP. People have free will and can oppose these labels 5. It doesn’t explain where stereotypes come from. Police typifications must have developed from somewhere 6. It has little to say about victims of crime. 7. It has no real policy solutions to crime. It only explains crime an doesn't provide solutions 8. It fails to explain why some are labelled and not others

Answer 69

They see the criminal justice system as part of the superstructure in which social institutions function to maintain the economic base and serve the needs of capitalism. The law reflects ruling class ideology and protects the interests of the ruling class by maintaining social order. In particular they claim capitalism is based on greed and selfishness which makes people only look out for themselves. They also point out that crimes of the working class are the focus of attention, hiding much bigger crimes of the ruling classes

Answer 70

1. Laws are a reflection of ruling class ideology - theft and trespassing 2. Protection of property is at the heart of the capitalist system - RC set laws and decide what is right and wrong because they own buildings and want to focus on themselves 3. Those who oppose the ruling class are criminalised - Manchester and London riots - harsher punishment 4. Crime is a natural response to inequality - if people cannot afford basic necessities they may turn to utilitarian crimes to survive. 5. There is one law for the rich and one for the poor. The rich have the ability to save themselves because they are in charge e.g., paying police, getting good lawyers 6. Law enforcement blames the individual for crime not the system. Utilitarian crimes, blaming the individual, not looking at why they are 7. Working class crime is an act of rebellion against a failing system. Riots is a natural response - safety valve

Answer 71

Capitalism is based on the exploitation of the WC for profit. This is damaging to the WC and may lead to crime: * Poverty may mean that crime is the only way to survive * Crime may be the only way to obtain consumer goods * Alienation and a lack of control may lead to non-utilitarian crime such as violence and vandalism However, crime is not confined to the working class. Capitalism is ‘dog eat dog’ based on ruthless competition between capitalists. The need to stay on top and make profit may lead to white collar crime such as tax evasion and breach of health and safety laws. Gordon (1976) argues that crime is a rational response to capitalism and therefore it is found in all social classes.

Answer 72

Crime isn't always rational e.g., crimes of passion and manic episodes

Answer 73

Marxists see law enforcement as serving the needs of the capitalist class. Chambliss (1975) argues that laws to protect private property are the corner stone of capitalist economy. He also argues that ORGANISED CRIME is a major operation in Western capitalist society. Essentially, authorities often ‘turn a blind eye’ to organised crime as high levels of corruption mean that senior figures (such as politicians or the police) are themselves involved in the criminal activity. 1) Those who operate organised crime in the USA belong to the economic and political elite. 2) The ruling class as a whole benefit from organised crime as money used from crime is then used to finance legal business. 3) Corruption of local politicians and law enforcement agencies is essential for organised crime to flourish. 4) Criminal acts that favour ruling class interests will not be punished The ruling class also do not introduce laws that affect their interests.

Answer 74

Opportunistic - fraud, drug trafficking, gambling intertwines with gang crime. Planned and co-ordinated criminal behaviour and conduct by people working together

Answer 75

The capitalist state is reluctant to pass laws that regulate the activities of businesses that may impact on their profitability

Answer 76

Supports capitalism in 3 ways: 1) Individuals who commit crimes are defined as ‘social failures’ and are seen as responsible for their actions, therefore blame is directed to the individual and NOT on capitalist society (and its problems) 2) Imprisonment of selected members of the working class quashes opposition to the system. For example, black people in America are heavily over-represented in arrest figures. 3) Defining criminals as ‘animals’ and ‘misfits’ provides a justification for their imprisonment. This keeps them hidden from public view and so the rebellion against the capitalist system is swept under the carpet.

Answer 77

Madoff was a fraudster who owned the biggest ponzy scheme. He was arrested for his crimes

Answer 78

Police, crime, sentencing and courts act 2022. Introduced to give more power to the police, criminal justice and sentencing legislations. It also encompasses restrictions on 'unacceptable' protests. Prevents democracy. Kill the bill protests were against it.

Answer 79

argues that health and safety laws which appear to benefit the WC benefit the ruling class by keeping individuals fit for work and exploitation by creating a false class consciousness through a fake caring face of capitalism. Also because law enforcement is selective crime appears to be a working class phenomenon. This works as divide and rule as the working class blame criminals rather than capitalism. It doesn't explain why medical laws protect staff are there to benefit the proletariat e.g., RC have to pay compensation - criminal offence to not protect employees e.g., recycling plant in Brum 5 died can sue for compensation. No FFC because company was held accountable

Answer 80

Takes a voluntaristic view (free will) they see crime as a choice. They argue criminals are not passive puppets but that they are trying to change society through deliberate criminal acts. The emphasis on freedom is evidence with the fact that they want a classless society. They argue individuals should not be labelled deviant because they are different. In an ideal socialist society people would be free to live as they wish. Taylor et al. suggested it was necessary to draw on both structural and interactionist approaches to explore crime. They argued to understand how crime is socially constructed we need to develop a ‘fully social theory of deviance.’

Answer 81

1. Crime must be looked at in the wider context of the act e.g., the distribution of wealth and power in society 2. How does society respond to the act, do some criminals get treated more harshly than others e.g, street crime 3. Does the act itself have a particular meaning, was it a form of rebellion against capitalism?

Answer 82

1. Things such as why a person commits a deviant act must be considered 2. The meaning of the deviant act for the person involved. was the individual 'kicking back' at society through an act of vandalism? 3. The effects of labelling, why does labelling lead to deviancy amplification in some cases and not others

Answer 83

Transnational corporation. Companies which operate around the world

Answer 84

He argues that T.N.C.’s have moved production to cheaper countries which has caused Britain to become de-industrialised. Unemployment, temporary and part-time working and job insecurity have increased deprivation which fuels criminal behaviour. Also those with no job prospects and little hope often descend into alcoholism and/or drug dependency. TNC's remove jobs from local economy which fuels unemployment

Answer 85

Graham Taylor does not focus on the rise of unemployment he argues that TNC’s are committing crimes themselves. Some of these are ‘green’ (environmental) crimes such as dumping toxic waste in developing countries. Also many firms choose to locate where laws are either softer or not enforced or where they can bribe officials. As profits from TNC contribute to the economy, from a Marxist perspective, law makers are reluctant to punish them meaning that the amount of white collar crime is significantly under reported and detected.

Answer 86

Shell and BP oil spills. Joe Biden wants to do oil drilling in Alaska. Bhopal disaster union carbide India understaffed plant led to gas disaster

Answer 87

- These theories help locate crime in the context of a wider society based on class inequality. - They also give us a greater understanding of white-collar crime because we can see WCC often occurs to cut corners within TNC's

Answer 88

- They over emphasise class and ignore gender and ethnicity - They over emphasise property crime and don’t focus on serious offences such as rape and murder. They focus on crime which is done to rebel/get around capitalism. Doesn't recognise crimes of passion/irrational non-utilitarian crime - They have little to say about deviance. The mostly focus on crime which is done as a result of capitalism - They fail to give solutions other than communism. - They ignore victims. Focus on why criminals commit crime - They fail to acknowledge, that the law protects everyone.

Answer 89

Crime is not universal. An act which is considered a crime is determined by a society. They will set laws and decide which acts are criminal

Answer 90

All adopt a version of positivism in the following ways: - They try to find the causes of criminality. - They try to find ways of eradicating crime. - They assume that scientific methods are the best way of discovering the truth about crime. - They believe that it is possible to find an overall theory to explain crime. Postmodernists reject these traditional approaches

Answer 91

Henry and Milovanovic (1996) adopt a transgressive approach to crime. They suggest that crime should be reconceptualised as people using power to show disrespect for and causing some sort of harm to others. Whether or not it is illegal, embracing all threats and risks to people pursuing increasingly diverse lifestyles and identities. They identify 2 forms of harm:

Answer 92

Harms of reduction and harms of repression

Answer 93

Power is used to cause the victim to experience immediate loss or injury

Answer 94

Power is used to restrict future human development. This includes threatening human dignity and a lack of respect such as sexual harassment and hate crimes

Answer 95

They do not believe that crimes can be linked together and that common factors that cause them can be identified. They regard each criminal act as unique. They do not believe that it is possible to engineer reforms to improve society (changes in the law/ the way we police etc). Effective ways of dealing with crime must be LOCAL and INDIVIDUAL. They believe that as society is categorised by individualism so life is now uncertain and unpredictable that Meta narratives of class, gender, ethnicity no longer apply. They argue that each crime is a one-off event therefore the social causes of crime are undiscoverable. For example: Low self-esteem can lead to individuals engaging in criminal activities where they harm others. This may lead to hate crimes.

Answer 96

Suggest some perpetrators of hate crime derive thrills, joys and excitement by inflicting suffering on those they perceive to be different from themselves

Answer 97

Crime is seductive - young males get drawn into it not because of rejection but because it is thrilling

Answer 98

Agrees with Katz and argues that risk taking can be seen as ’edgework’. By this he means that there is a thrill by acting in ways that are on the edge between security and danger. There are some people that are predisposed to take risks, they may get involved in criminal activity for the thrill. Explains the non-utilitarian crime such as joy riding and crimes such as fraud and explains crime amongst all social classes. It’s not clear if it is innate or part of their socialisation. There are legal ways of taking risks so why do some choose to law break.

Answer 99

In the postmodernist view the fragmentation of society is reflected in a similar fragmentation of crime prevention thorough a publicly controlled and accountable centralised CJS. A growing emphasis is placed on private crime prevention and informal localised arrangements for controlling crime. There is increasing use of private control agencies like security firms who control private public places such as shopping centres. Contemporary societies use surveillance technology to monitor and control everyone not just offenders and in turn promote conformity. Foucault (1992) pointed out that surveillance is penetrating ever more private aspects of our lives, providing round the clock surveillance technology such as CCTV and automatic number plate recognition. This monitors the movement of people, the majority of which are innocent in every sphere of life including social media, emails and use of websites. Widespread surveillance through CCTV is endemic throughout the UK, which has, according to the British Security Industry Authority approximately 5 million cameras in Britain in 2013. This is approx. 1 camera for every 13 UK citizens. This surveillance also takes the form of consumer tracking, in which large amounts of data is collected on individuals. Google for example collects vast amounts of information thorough the searches made by users. Tesco club card also tracks orders in order to advertise the lifestyle of the consumer. Foucault suggests widespread external surveillance promotes conformity as there is always the fear of being watched. This leads to people controlling their own behaviour and acting in socially acceptable ways; the big brother effect. The postmodernists approach examines the ways in which extensive surveillance can promote conformity and reduce crime, yet it does not assess the impact on an individual’s civil liberties and human rights. Private security firms are not subject to the same controls as the police. It does not examine social inequality for example and the benefits of informal social control to those in power.

Answer 100

More opportunity for crime e.g., pickpocketing shoplifting

Answer 101

Some would argue it does because people do not consent to be recorded but on the other hand it keeps people safe so is beneficial

Answer 102

With the increase of filming it is normalised but people fear it as they are more aware

Answer 103

Decrease in crime rates, can solve investigations e.g., finding/locating stolen things or giving family closure

Answer 104

- Lea (1998) believes that postmodernism has made a useful contribution to the study of the control of crime. In the postmodern world INFORMAL CONTROL MECHANISMS (ICM’s) come to dominate at the expense of the central state (police/ government). Examples of ICM’s are: - Private security firms watch over shopping centres. - Closed-circuit television (CCTV) follows our movements around city and town centres. - Security firms prevent undesirables from entering some estates. - People are treated differently in different areas and seen increasingly as customers and consumers. - However, Lea also believes that postmodernism is regressive (avoids major questions) since it denies the possibility of being able to do anything to change unequal and unjust societies.

Answer 105

Left realism claims to take crime seriously, particularly street crime, but without the moral hysteria of the right They argue that: 1. Most crime is committed by working class people against other working-class people 2. Too often the victims of crime have been ignored- they focus on victims 3. They argue that crime is a real problem especially among the working class and fear is justified.

Answer 106

- Left realism accepts the picture presented by official statistics that there has been a growth in working class crime. - It argues that increasing numbers of the working class find themselves MARGINALISED in a very consumer based society where material goods are highly prized Links to Cohen's status frustration. WC feel marginalised so feel status frustration because they are not respected in society. They also feel strain because they want to achieve the goal of material success but are marginalised so have to find different means to do this. They commit crime to get back at society

Answer 107

They point to a ‘growing army of young unemployed’ for whom a collective violence and the temporary control over their territory through riot is a substitute for organised politics. - For left realism, the growing unrest and criminality of sections of working class youth has to be located in the context of wider structural processes associated with capitalism and the ending of manual jobs Argue it has 3 concepts, relative deprivation, marginalisation and subculture

Answer 108

When people can't afford material things desired in society

Answer 109

People are pushed out of society, causes them to rebel against the state

Answer 110

Anti-school and criminal subcultures

Answer 111

- Young (1999, 2003) argues that late modern society we are now media saturated where everyone is included in consumer culture through constant exposure to advertising. - The media shows us what our life should be like. - This inclusion is accompanied for those at the bottom of the class structure with exclusion as they cannot afford to buy new goods to shape their identity. - He argues this creates a bulimic society

Answer 112

The people who take part in the riots want the expensive consumer lifestyle they see but realise they cannot afford it so use illegitimate means to get it don't vomit it out

Answer 113

Bourgeoisie produce images to create a consumer society and desire for goods because it benefits the capitalist society and the economy. The more people but from large businesses such as Amazon, the more profit they get. Lewis et al: found that the desire to consume in a bulimic society was a significant factor in motivating some of the 15,000 people involved in the riots. However, the rioters were not prepared to vomit out their expectations and instead turned to crime to get it

Answer 114

- Growing individualism – there is a growing focus on self-seeking, individual freedom and less community spirit and concern for others. - The weakening of informal social control – Traditional family structures and communities are breaking down therefore there is a lack of informal support on the behaviour of those within a community - Growing economic inequality and economic change – Globalisation has meant that the gap between the wealthiest and the poorest has grown massively. The combination of this factors can be considered to be a toxic mix that generates crime amongst the most deprived communities.

Answer 115

WC have lots of community cohesion to help each other so people being relatively deprived doesn't mean they will commit crime as much of them have a strong sense of cohesion. Left realism only focuses on utilitarian crime. Other reasons such as thrill-seeking so a bit deterministic. We are active audiences who can easily reject messages so we don't live in a bulimic society

Answer 116

Formal social control: police and CJS - target specific groups Offenders: typifications Victims: vulnerable - targeted attacks The public - informal social control - neighbourhood watch

Answer 117

Informal social control (the public) e.g., speeding

Answer 118

Improved community cohesion, measures to tackle deprivation e.g., Sure start, restorative justice and democratic control of policing

Answer 119

Involving the local community in controlling crime involves improving communities in the long term reducing unemployment and creating jobs improving living standards of poor families HOWEVER: not all communities want to work with the police - subcultures

Answer 120

Sure Start centres - work with parents to promote the physical, intellectual and social development of babies and young children HOWEVER: Lack of funding to keep them open

Answer 121

Bringing together victim and offender and the affected community members in a facilitated dialogue to promote understanding, accountability and healing. Promotes reconciliation and reduces recidivism HOWEVER: Might not work for serious crimes, works for petty crime, limited

Answer 122

Police should listen to local communities 90% of crime cleared up are a result of info from the public - thus ensuring public confidence in the police is important. Holding police accountable - institutional racism (BLM) and sexism HOWEVER: Police have more power so it is difficult to control them. Marxists - police controlled by bourgeoisie. Feminists - police are majority men in patriarchal society hard to control a sexist, male-dominated police force. Wayne Couzens

Answer 123

* Has been praised for recognising crime is a real problem, not just some people being labelled * Has attempted to suggest ways crime might be reduced, so is practical not just theoretical * Does not appear as sympathetic to criminals as both traditional Marxists and Interactionists * It recognises the importance of community solutions to crime and we need victims, offenders, the police and the public involve in reducing crime

Answer 124

* Some of their solutions to crime appear to be either very long term and/or expensive * Marxists criticise them for ignoring the really serious crimes of the rich and powerful * Interactionists maintain the crime statistics really are distorted by police attitudes, for example where they choose to police * It relies on victim surveys which measure the extent and fear of crime yet these may be focussed on some crimes not others.

Answer 125

Right realism is arguably the greatest influence on home office policy because of the practical policies that derive from it. The origins derive from Wilson (1985) who was concerned that sociology had not solved the problem of crime. He argues that attempts to tackle crime are pointless and the best thing to do is reduce the impact crime has on people’s lives. Heavier punishment will deter criminals as there is a greater chance of detection not because of the heavy sanction.

Answer 126

Value consensus and shared morality underpin society, people are naturally selfish, community control, rational choice and opportunity and crime will always exist

Answer 127

This is the belief that the decision to commit a crime is based on a rational calculation of the likely consequences. The perceived cost of crime Vs the rewards of the crime. They believe that crime is committed when the benefit outweighs the cost.

Answer 128

We as a society have shared norms and values which dictate how we behave and what is considered criminal or deviant

Answer 129

The rise in individualism means that more people are selfish so people are naturally inclined towards criminal behaviour. Can further their interests if there is little chance of being caught

Answer 130

They believe in harsher community control. This will deter people from committing crimes

Answer 131

People have rational choice when deciding if they will commit a crime. If the benefits outweigh the costs, they will commit the crime - rational choice theory

Answer 132

Crime is inevitable because of biological and social factors. Harsher punishment will help to deter it

Answer 133

Some crimes are spur of the moment e.g., crimes of passion. This can also be self-defence. There is no time to make a rational choice

Answer 134

Developed the broken windows thesis. This suggests that unless anti-social behaviour or what they called “incivilities” is kept to a minimum there will be a gradual deterioration of neighbourhoods. With vandalism, noise and litter comes a sense of anything goes. If a few broken windows are left, more anti-social behaviour will follow. This suggests zero tolerance for all anti-social behaviour.

Answer 135

Lack of evidence that incivility leads to crime. They have been criticised on the grounds there is no funding to regenerate areas. They ignore that this antisocial behaviour may be the result of deprivation and poor government action. Zero tolerance policing doesn't consider why a person has committed a crime and could lead to more outrage. This policing can cause more unrest and hatred toward police

Answer 136

Zero tolerance policing, CCTV surveillance, target hardening and deterrence sentencing

Answer 137

Strictly enforcing penalties for minor crimes. The New York zero tolerance study suggests it works to reduce crime e.g., clean car program. Tube cars taken out of service if they had graffiti on them

Answer 138

Situational crime prevention - protecting specific targets from potential criminals. Focuses on making it harder for the criminal to commit the crime. Reduces opportunity - links to rational choice theory

Answer 139

Defending objects by shields and other defences .e.g, shutters, window locks, anti-climb paint, security guards. Cheap and simple

Answer 140

General deterrence - uses prison sentences as an example to induce the public to refrain from criminal conduct Specific deterrence - punishes an offender to dissuade that offender from committing crimes in the future

Answer 141

* It addresses the immediate cause of crime and provides policies for reducing crime. * It recognises that if minor problems like anti-social behaviour aren't nipped in the bud they grow into more serious crime. * It recognises like left realism the importance of community control and response to crime in affecting crime levels.

Answer 142

* It does not address wider structural causes of crime that other theories do. * It suggests zero tolerance will decrease crime yet it may create hostility and in fact increase crime. * Zero tolerance may lead to focus being placed on minor offences and the resources will be taken up rather than focussing on serious offences. * It does not include white collar crime and corporate crime. * It assumes all offenders are rational and weigh up cost and benefits.

Answer 143

Over represent violent and sexual crime, portrays criminals and victims as white, older and middle class, exaggerates police success,, exaggerates risk of victimisation, crime is reported as a series of separate events, overplay extraordinary crimes

Answer 144

Ditton and Duffy (1983) found that 46% of media reports were about sexual and violent crimes yet these made up only 3% of recorded crime. Marsh (1991) also found that violent crime was 36 times more likely to be reported in the news than property crime.

Answer 145

Most victims are young and often living in deprived communities. Victimisation occurs more in EMG. Felson (1998) called this age fallacy.

Answer 146

This is because the focus of the media is on violent crime which has a higher clear up rate than property crime plus the police are high on the hierarchy of credibility.

Answer 147

Especially to women, white people and the upper classes.

Answer 148

Without examining the structural causes of crime e.g. social inequality and poverty.

Answer 149

Felson calls this “dramatic fallacy” when the media focus on the weird and wonderful and also imply that criminals are all intelligent and calculated.

Answer 150

There is some evidence of changes in the type of coverage of crime by the news media. Schlesinger and Tumber (1994) found that in the 1960s the focus had been found that in the 1960s the focus was on murders and petty crime then in the 1990s widened to include drugs, child abuse, terrorism, football hooliganism and muggings. There is also a preoccupation with sex crimes, focussing on labels such as sex fiends and beasts resulting in a distorted idea that you will be raped by a stranger; when in fact you are more likely to be raped by someone you know.

Answer 151

The distorted picture of crime who in the media reflects the fact that crime is a social construct. Jock Young argues that news is not discovered it is manufactured

Answer 152

The news is based on stories that would interest a certain audience. Different societies will prefer different news so it is catered to that

Answer 153

Conflict, impact, current, close to home, who is involved, reference to elite persons, elite nations, continuity

Answer 154

Point out that in news, documentaries and fiction, stories of sexual and violent crimes are the incidents that titillate, excite and capture the popular imagination. The media are always seeking out news worthy stories of crime and deviance, and they exploit the possibilities of a good story by sensationalising events out of all proportion for the audience. Greer (2005) suggests that these news values explain why all media, both fact and fiction, tend to exaggerate the extent of violent crime and why practically any form of deviance from celebrities no matter how trivial, receives massive coverage.

Answer 155

Mass media also include fiction which can be novels, comics, films, games etc. and these too give a distorted picture of crime. Fictional representations of crime, criminals and victims follow what Surette has described as the law of opposites as they are in opposition to the crime statistics produced by the government. Property crime is under-represented whilst violence drugs and sexual crimes are over-represented. Murders are usually a result of brawls and domestic disputes yet in fictional crimes they are calculated targeted attacks. Fictional sex crimes are committed by psychopathic strangers not friends and family. Fictional criminals usually have status – middle class white males for example. Fictional cops always catch the “bad guy”. However, we must note a new trend in fictional representations that show the reality of corruption in the police, ethnic minority offenders, underclass offenders and also a more realistic portrayal of victims can be seen.

Answer 156

Crime has become a vital part of the mass media diet both real and fictional crime Media violence, particularly murder and theft have become an integral part of infotainment – in which crime is packaged to entertain. An example is Criminal Minds Hayward and Young (2012) argue that advertisers use images of crime and deviance to attract consumers from a youth market. Games such as Grand Theft Auto show crime as cool and exciting.

Answer 157

The idea that what the public thinks about is set by the media. This links to crime - if knife crime is overreported, the pubic will believe that it is a large issue.

Answer 158

The mass media might encourage crime. There are several ways suggested such as: - Imitation – deviant role models leads to copycat behaviour - Labelling - Arousal – through viewing violent or sexual imagery - Desensitisation – through repeat viewing of violence - By transmitting knowledge of criminal techniques - As a target for crime e.g. Wide screen TV - By stimulating desire of consumer goods. - By portraying police as incompetent - By glamorising offending - New means of committing crime Thousands of studies have been conducted – most tend to find media violence has a limited impact on its audience.

Answer 159

Bandura Real-life: James Bulger and Columbine

Answer 160

As we have seen, the media exaggerate crime; they exaggerate the risks of certain people becoming victims of crime. This makes it an unrealistic fear. Gerbner found a link between high media consumption and higher fear of crime. However, it could be that there is no real link – those that have a fear of crime may stay in more therefore watch more TV.

Answer 161

The media causes a fear of crime through labelling. This can be seen in the deviancy amplification cycle. This links to Cohen who says that a moral panic is started with a folk devil

Answer 162

Not relevant today, people are more media literate, assumes a passive audience

Answer 163

Advertisement in a media saturated society lead to further feelings of relative deprivation in turn for more crime. People feel they don't have things everyone else do so many resort to theft and shoplifting

Answer 164

With new types of media, this creates problems that didn't previously exist. The problems of jurisdiction in global cyber crime didn't exist. It also creates issues with offender profiling. Many accounts are anonymous so a profile cannot be made about the type of offender

Answer 165

The arrival of new types of media is met with moral panic. For example, horror comics, cinema, TV, video and computer games are all accused of undermining public morality and corrupting the young. The same is true of the internet has led to fears of cybercrime. Jewkes (2003) notes, the internet creates opportunities to commit both conventional crimes such as fraud, and new crimes using new told such as software piracy. Wall (2001) identifies four categories of cybercrime:

Answer 166

Cyber trespass, cyber deception, cyber pornography and cyber violence

Answer 167

Crossing boundaries into others cyber property – hacking and sabotage.

Answer 168

Including identity therefore phishing (illegally obta8ining bank details) and violation of intellectual property.

Answer 169

Including porn involving minors and children access porn through the internet.

Answer 170

Doing psychological harm or inciting physical harm. Cyber violence includes cyber stalking and hate crimes online.

Answer 171

Policing global cybercrime is difficult partly because of the sheer scale of the internet and the limited resources of the police, and also because of its globalised nature, which poses problems of jurisdiction (e.g. in which country should a person be prosecuted for an internet offence. Police culture also gives cyber-crime a low priority because it’s not as exciting to police.

Answer 172

Justice is not fixed, it is negotiable. If a white middle-class male is arrested they are less likely to be charged because of their background. This is because they don't meet the typification and a criminal which is usually a WC black male. This creates issues with crime stats because they are based on whether they are charged which depends on if they fit the typifications

Answer 173

We can use them as a starting point to firstly identify patterns and/or trends and then try to explain them e.g. we can compare class background of offenders, identify crime is highest in lower social classes and then try to produce a theory to explain this pattern.

Answer 174

We will take our research a different way and investigate why lower class people are more likely than others to be arrested, charged, convicted and sentenced etc. In 2014 HM Inspectorate of Constabulary calculated that almost one in five (19%) of crimes reported to the police are not recorded. Maguire (2002) estimates only about 3% of all crime in England and Wales ends in a conviction.

Answer 175

Police recorded crime, victim surveys, self-reporting from criminals and court and prison records

Answer 176

This is the process of recording an offence as a crime when it is reported to the police. Recording crime helps the police to work out when, where and how often crime is happening

Answer 177

A survey that asks a sample of people which crimes have been committed against them over a fixed period of time and whether or not they have been reported to the police

Answer 178

This is the distribution of a questionnaire to a sample of people asking them whether they have committed a crime in a particular period of time

Answer 179

These will show what offenders have committed what crime and which sentence/punishment they received

Answer 180

Crimes are now brought to the attention of the police by the public – this can now be through face book and twitter with GMP having an account. If a moral panic occurs, this can increase the amount of crime which is reported. This is because they will be scared so are likely to report it to stop it

Answer 181

A strong desire from the police to prosecute certain offenders- such as a crackdown on knife crime etc. This leads to the allocation of more resources when policing this issue.

Answer 182

There is more reporting of vandalism and ASB in communities. McGuire (2007) suggests that growing privatisation and the breakdown of community life means that people are no longer may be reporting incidents they once would have dealt with themselves.

Answer 183

Changing attitudes and greater information on crimes such as rape and child abuse leads to an increase in reporting.

Answer 184

This leads to more crimes being reported and recorded. Changing social attitudes can lead to crime crimes being reported. this means more crime is recorded as more people are caught. Neighbourhood watch and policing schemes also have an impact. This keeps communities safer

Answer 185

changing the rules on how crimes are counted and recorded may lead to more stats but not necessarily more crime.

Answer 186

For example in 2012, 292 new criminal offences were created and 188 abolished

Answer 187

Social networking has led to an increase in crime. Changes have been made to make reporting easier

Answer 188

Consumption as increased and more people have home contents insurance. Insurance claims need a crime reference number for criminal damage and theft so more crime is reported.

Answer 189

This is the large number of crimes which go unrecorded/unreported which don't contribute to the crime stats. This supports the idea that crime is a social construct. A crime may be unrecorded/unreported because an officer or member of the public may not consider it a crime showing that it is socially constucted

Answer 190

Either there is something about certain groups that makes them more criminally inclined or there is a systematic bias in the way the crime statistics are arrived at. There are two schools of sociological thought on this issue. * Functionalist and subcultural theorists tend to accept the statistics as valid and base their theories on them. They argue stats are a FACT. * Interactionists and Marxists are more interested in how the statistics are produced – they argue that stats are a SOCIAL CONSTRUCT.

Answer 191

It shows good data and shows each sector is needed for society to function e.g., CJS

Answer 192

They show that the underclass are responsible for the most crime due to their culture and values

Answer 193

Someone may be labelled as a criminal so through SFP commit crime. Stats don't show the wider picture as to why someone committed the crime

Answer 194

They will say that the WC will appear more because they are labelled as criminals. Bourgeoisie's WCC won't appear because they control the system

Answer 195

It measures the amount of crime in England and Wales by asking people whether you do your household has experienced crime int he last year

Answer 196

- Crimes can only be reported if victims are aware of them - The results are limited to the memory and the definition of the event - The survey only looks at households and neglects businesses. - The sample does not include those under the age of 16. Box (1981) rejected the impression created by official statistics that the working class youths are more likely to take part in delinquency than middle class youths. He suggested that class had no influence over whether a person admits to committing a crime.

Answer 197

1. Many crimes are not reported. This contributes to the dark figure of crime 2. Also, police do not always record a crime. Creates inaccuracies in stats 3. Studies have shown potential criminals can talk their way out of being charged. Link to Cicourel here. If they don't fit typifications they can be let off. 4. Other interactionists have suggested labelling by agents of social control distorts the crime statistics. SFP 5. Marxists argue that stats are used to maintain the dominant ideology. Bourgeoisie in control so show WC as committing crime

Answer 198

- The UN defines victims of crime as those who have suffered physical, mental or emotional suffering, economic loss and the impairment of basic rights through acts that violate the laws of the state. - Christie (1986) argues that victims are socially constructed – the stereotype of a victim has been created by the media and the CJS as a weak, innocent and blameless individual such as a child or elderly person. Someone can be a victim of crime but not seen to be affected meaning the offender may get away with it

Answer 199

- Tierney suggests positivist approaches involves identifying differences between victims and non-victims. It focuses on interpersonal crimes of violence - It aims to identify victims who have contributed to their own victimisation - They study the concept of victim proneness and characteristics that may make you prone to being a victim

Answer 200

- This is based on concepts such as Marxism and Feminism it focuses on: Structural factors - such as patriarchy and poverty which place the powerless groups at greater risk of victimisation The states power to allow or deny the label of victim - victim is a social construct and the CJS allows or denies victim status

Answer 201

Focuses on traditional crime and ignores things like green, state or corporate crime

Answer 202

Needs to include both sides of who would be a victim e.g., women and domestic violence or rich vs poor

Answer 203

WC - don't have a much power .e.,g lawyers to prosecute so will be targeted

Answer 204

Female - problems of rape, women seen as weak so easier target

Answer 205

Elderly/young - weaker and may not know what do so targeted

Answer 206

This is that those who have the least power, who are most deprived and have the fewest material possessions are the ones who are more likely to be victims of crime. By contract the most affluent in society are least likely to be victims. The second irony is that those who steal from the poor are usually other poor people

Answer 207

It creates problems for society because certain groups are targeted. It can also lead to the inverse victimisation law. Victims will be victims because of people from their own group which can create a cycle of offending

Answer 208

Secondary victimisation can occur through the treatment of the victim from the CJS especially in rape trials etc.

Answer 209

Deterrence, public protection, retribution and rehabilitation

Answer 210

Deterring people from committing crime in the first place as people are afraid of the consequences

Answer 211

It's the primary role of the police to maintain public order, protect people from harm

Answer 212

Concerned with punishing criminals to make sure they get their 'just desserts'

Answer 213

Rehabilitative justice is the idea that alongside punishment offenders should be reformed

Answer 214

Garland (2001) suggests that at the start of the 20th century focus was placed on rehabilitation but since the 1970s there has been more focus on retribution; with people wanting harsher sentences – this is shown with the number or prisoners more than doubling 1970-2014 in an attempt to crack down on crime. Garland sees this as a shift in thinking from left realism to right realism: 1. Left realists: focus on the organisation of society and focus on the inequality that exists and highlight the argument that it may be the environment that leads to crime being seen as the norm. 2. Right realists: emphasise the individual. They note that people choose to commit crime because the benefits outweigh the costs. Also society needs to look at ways to increase the costs of crime. Garland argues this has led to a culture of control.

Answer 215

Clarke (1992) emphasises that situational crime prevention is concerned with preventing crime in a particular location rather than catching offenders. It aims to make crime a less attractive choice for offenders, rather than reducing crime by improving society or trying to reduce crime by using harsh punishments as a deterrent. This is achieved by ‘designing out crime’ and using ‘target hardening measures’. This involves creating barriers to prevent crime such as anti-climb paint, smart water, CCTV, locks, alarms, target policing, alcohol free zones etc. These aim to reduce crime in that area by making it difficult for offenders and increasing the chances of them being caught. Cornish and Clarke (2003) also suggest using warning signs to remind groups they are being watched.

Answer 216

Suggests crime is simply displaced to a different area to other areas where the risks of being caught are lower. However, others such as Felson and Clarke argue that SCP does work as offenders do not simply move elsewhere they move to legitimate activities. Only addresses street crime

Answer 217

Felson argued the bus terminal was poorly designed and provided opportunities for crime to be committed. The toilets allowed for rough sleepers, drug dealing, sexual encounters and had a high number of thefts. They reshaped the physical environment design to stop crime. For example, replacing large sinks with small basins to prevent people bathing in them and also introducing UV lights into toilets to prevent drug taking

Answer 218

Realists such as Wilson and Kelling (1982) discuss the impact of the environment and surroundings on criminal behaviour. Crime is committed in areas that appear to have been neglected. They use the Broken Windows Thesis to demonstrate this. They argue a broken window acts as a signal that an area has become disorganised. It is a signal that attracts social disorder and shows a lack of community concern. When a broken window remains unrepaired then the area begins to deteriorate. In their view neighbourhoods give off an image that anything goes. They argue that communities need to take a zero-tolerance approach to low level vandalism. They need to keep neighbourhoods in good physical appearance and low level anti-social behaviour should be punished harshly. Felson and Clarke (1998) put forward a routine activity theory. They argue crime occurs when: 1- there is a suitable target for an offender 2- there is no guardian e.g. surveillance, police or neighbourhood watch 3- there is a potential offender present to see if the first two exist.

Answer 219

Zero tolerance policing had been effective in New York, for example a clean car programme was introduced on the subway, in which cars were taken off service if they had graffiti on them and returned only once they were clean. As a result, graffiti was drastically reduced on the subway. Later the same approach was used by the police who cracked down on squeegee merchants and found that many of them had warrants out for their arrest. Between 1993-96 there was a significant fail in crime in the city including a 50% drop in the homicide rate

Answer 220

We can argue that it did contribute because the statistics show that crime rates have fallen but this may have been because the opportunity to commit the crime was no longer there linking it to situational crime prevention

Answer 221

Left realists see that it is both the offenders and victims that worry people the most are in disadvantaged areas. They argue in areas where there is high social exclusion criminality is a major issue. They argue we need to tackle deprivation within these communities, both cultural and material deprivation. Factors such as poverty, unemployment, poor housing, poor education, poor parenting, family conflict etc. are leading to communities of people who, because of their circumstances are at high risk of offending. There is also a lack of confidence in the police in deprived communities. The police respond to this by using military style policing in these areas. Left realists believe this is counterproductive as it creates a divide between the police and local residents. They argue focus needs to be placed on community cohesion, democratic policing, multi- agency support networks such as social services, probation, NHS etc., parenting support and measures implemented to tackle deprivation such as improving facilitates.

Answer 222

Marxists - fails to address structural factors which cause crime (power imbalances) and structural inequalities of capitalist society. Doesn't target certain types of crime (WCC, green crime, state crime) frames crime as a WC problem

Answer 223

An experimental group of 3-4 year olds were offered a two-year intellectual enrichment programme during which they had home visits. A longitudinal study followed the children's progress afterwards and it showed vast differences between those who had been apart of the study and those that had not. By the age of 30 they had fewer arrest for property crime, drugs and violence whilst more had graduated and were in employment. It was calculated that for eery dollar spent on the programme $17 was saved on welfare, prison and other costs. Left realists would support this

Answer 224

Zero-tolerance Custodial Community Fines

Answer 225

- The prison system is supposed to be the ultimate deterrent both controlling crime and punishing offenders. Yet it does not seem effective as a crime prevention measure. - In November 2020 the prison population stood at approx. 80000 - The UK has more life sentenced prisoners than the rest of Western Europe combined. - High rates of recidivism (reoffending) suggest that prison does not deter offenders. 2/3 of prisoners reoffend within 2 years of release. - Boorman and Hopkins (2012) conducted a survey on prisoner crime reduction and found 54% had one proven offence within one year and 68% had a proven offence after two years.

Answer 226

Argues that the scale of imprisonment has little impact on the crime rate. He argues that prisons are “Universities of crime” and they are “an expensive way of making bad people worse”. He argues there is very little chance for reform or rehabilitation in prison.

Answer 227

Agrees arguing there are subcultures in prison that increase offending as people become labelled as ‘criminal’ they accept this as their master status.

Answer 228

Growing concern over the impact of prison on reducing the crime rate has led to more attempts being made to divert low-level offenders away from a life of criminality. The aim is to stop them entering the universities of crime. There is a lot more restorative justice and community sentences being used than incarceration (prison). Braithwaite argues restorative justice is most effective when it involves reintegrative shaming

Answer 229

He saw brutal public punishments not only as a deterrence but also as a demonstration of supreme power of the monarch over criminals – he called this sovereign power. As the power of the sovereign declined, a new form of state power developed which he calls disciplinary power. Criminals were controlled and punished by surveillance – behaviour was constantly monitored, managed, controlled and regulated. Foucault argued this was reflected in a change in punishment. Foucault illustrates disciplinary power with ‘The Panopticon’ (SEE IMAGE BELOW) – this was a design for a prison in which each prisoner in their cell were visible to the guards from a central watch tower, but the prisoners cannot see the guards:

Answer 230

The prison design means that a guard can see the prisoners at all times. The prisoners will use self-discipline because they don't want to be seen doing something wrong by the guards. This can also work as rehabilitation because it takes away people's freedom acting as punishment but changes an offender's thinking which prevents reoffending when released

Answer 231

1. We can resists the power of social control - everyone does not accept authority. Not everyone conforms to authority, can't be generalised 2. CCTV is a form of surveillance but does not always reduce crime - there is more CCTV in inner city areas and more crime. There is still the opportunity for crime 3. CCTV fails to make areas more secure as there is no immediate impact. Someone may be able to flee by the time the footage is reviewed and identity has been matched

Answer 232

Mathiesen (1997) argues that instead of Panoptican surveillance which comes from authority we have synoptican surveillance where everybody watches everyone else. Thompson (2000) agrees arguing that powerful groups such as politicians are fearful of how they will be presented in the media so this acts as a form of social control. Example: publicity - people during lockdown being shamed for breaking rules. Links to the concept of citizen hournalism

Answer 233

Foucalt’s idea is based on the control of physical bodies in a confined space; the prison. Haggerty and Ericson (2000) argue we no longer need a person physically present but now we can use CCTV to survey behaviour through facial recognition technology – they call this surveillant assemblages – data is used as a key form of surveillance. Even down to what you buy at Tesco using your club card data.

Answer 234

Freeley and Simon (1994) argue that a new technology of power has emerged in the CJS focussing on groups rather than individuals, that is not interested in preventing rehabilitation but is aimed at stopping crime in the first place and calculates the risk of a certain group being a victim or offender of a crime. This can be seen in airport security as the screens identify risk factors based on known offenders – everyone then gets a risk profile, if you score high you may be stopped and searched.

Answer 235

The purpose of social sorting is to be able to categorise individuals based on risk, one effect is the place everybody in one social group under categorical suspicion - seen with Muslim males and terrorism

Answer 236

Law reflects value consensus - those who break it should be punished (retribution)

Answer 237

Law reflects RC ideology - punishment is part of repressive state apparatus - keeping people in line. From a Marxist perspective Rusche and Kircheimer (2007) see punishment as a system of social control and class domination in unequal society, they see the change from barbaric public punishment to the contemporary punishment as prisons being used for cheap labour as a change in the economic interests of the ruling class.

Answer 238

Stats show us that those from WC backgrounds are highly represented amongst offenders – more so than other classes. This may be due to social exclusion, status frustration, poverty, anomie etc. This may also be because white-collar crime is usually dealt with outside the CJS. There is a link between the level of crime and the state of the economy. Property crime rises when poverty is on the increase. This may explain why a high proportion of criminals come from a deprived back ground. Newburn (2007) argues that sociology focus on the crimes of the powerless rather than the crimes of the powerful.

Answer 239

Crime for survival - due to society and inequality RC control stats - will cover up their crime Status frustration and anomie

Answer 240

- Status frustration: make WC boys and delinquency is a reaction to middle class values. Boys perform poorly, lack status and out of frustration commit crime - Strain theory: 'American dream' society based on meritocratic principles however not equal access to goals so people find new means e.g., bad school

Answer 241

- Illegitimate opportunity structure, suggest criminal, conflict and retreatist subcultures - Focal concerns: excitement, toughness, smartness, trouble, fate and autonomy

Answer 242

- Crime is a result of marginalisation, subcultures and relative deprivation - These factors are mostly seen in WC but they do not explain with the RC commit crime

Answer 243

- Broken windows thesis: crime likely to occur in places with graffiti. It is accepted so more crime occurs. However not the fault of WC that money isn't put into poorer areas - Rational choice theory: weigh up risk and benefit, WC often commit crime for survival so benefit always overpowers

Answer 244

- Laws for interest of WC were for 'show', laws which protect RC were rigorously enforced - Most law protects those who own property e.g., RC prevents WC from advancing in society and laws applied selectively to control WC and protect RC

Answer 245

- Police typifications usually WC - RC can negotiate justice - lawyers

Answer 246

Sutherland (1949) was the first criminologist to show that crime was not simply a working class phenomenon, but was widespread through all sections of society. He introduced the idea of white-collar crime which he described as crimes committed by the more affluent in society, who abused their positions within their middle class occupations for personal benefit.

Answer 247

- NHS doctors, dentists and pharmacists have been found to falsify prescriptions and patient records to claim more from the NHS than to which they are entitled (one GP stealing £700,000 over five years by writing fake subscriptions) - Former owner of the Daily Telegraph, Conrad Black was jailed in the US for six and a half years for defrauding shareholders of millions of dollars for personal gain.

Answer 248

1) Paper work and non-compliance - this is when correct permits are not obtained and a failure to comply with health and safety regulation. 2) Green crime – these involve damages to the environment caused deliberately or through negligence. Such as toxic waste dumping. 3) Manufacturing offences – such as false labelling, failing to recall dangerous products and producing counterfeit goods. This could also be inadequate testing of the safety of a product for example in the 1950s Thalidomide was not tested properly and led to 1000’s of birth defects. 4) Labour law violations – This includes failing to pay the minimum wage or ignoring industrial diseases such as asbestos. 5) Unfair trade practices – false advertising, price fixing, illegally obtaining information on rival companies. In 2011 UK supermarkets and dairy companies were fined for price fixing on milk and cheese that costs consumers £270 million more than should have been paid for milk. 6) Finance offences – tax evasion, concealment of losses and debts. Amazon and Starbucks came under attack in 2012 for the failure to pay taxes by using offshore bank accounts.

Answer 249

Ian says that economic globalisation has led to more crime being committed by the elites

Answer 250

The RC control everything in society so have the power to cover up their crimes e.g., bribes because they have money

Answer 251

- They are hard to detect - perps often experts in the field and high up, takes place in work, not expected to be criminal as professional - They are often without individual victims - no direct victim so one to report - The crime may benefit both parties e.g., bribery - Hard to investigate - involve insider knowledge and skills the police might not have - Institutional protection means it is usually dealt with in-house, and not reported and prosecuted - business may protect employees - Less chance of being found guilty, due to middle class status - cultural capital same experiences as judges etc. Not police typification - Less likely to be given custodial sentence - economic capitals - good lawyer

Answer 252

1. Relative deprivation - RC may want to avoid this so commit WCC, may be in debt so turn to illegal things 2. Control theory - crime occurs with weakened social bonds in society 3. Edgework - people commit crime because of the excitement e.g., not getting caught 4. Techniques of neutralisation - We all have subterranean values which WC control. Criminals use techniques of neutralisation because they know its wrong

Answer 253

To keep their power in society and control over the WC

Answer 254

* 85% of arrest are male vs 15% female * 73% convictions are male vs 27% female * 95% of prison population is male vs 5% female * Men more likely to be victims of crime - in 2019/20, 3.9% of males were victim to personal crime, compared to 3.4% of females. In 2018/19, 671 homicides took place; 64% of victims were male and 36% were female * The proportion of females experiencing domestic abuse in 2019/20 was 7.3%, double that of males (3.6%) * For both sexes, the 30 to 39 age range represented the highest number of those prosecuted in 2019

Answer 255

- Males are typifications - Males more expected to commit crime - Police courts may treat women favourably - Testosterone linked to aggression, we also nurture boys to be strong and tough

Answer 256

 As ever, the official crime statistics are open to question however it is clear that women commit far less crime than men.  Heidensohn (2002): Self report studies indicate that in 1999 the male to female crime ratio was 3:1 (as opposed to 6:1 shown by official statistics) Stats are believed but they are not 100% accurate as there is a dark figure of crime because women are not the typical offender especially for violent crimes

Answer 257

Sex role theory is concerned with gender socialisation and the roles men and women have in the family and in society. Women’s traditional role is the expressive role and involves caring for other family members, taking the responsibility of the housework and also balancing paid employment. Heidensohn suggests that women have more to lose than men if they get involved in crime and deviance. They risk greater stigma and shame. Carlen argues that women are socialised into performing the role of guardians of domestic morality and they risk social disapproval when they fail to do so. Women who commit a crime face the double jeopardy of being condemned for committing the crime and also for being in a way that does not fit the feminine ideals – behaving unlike a ‘proper woman’. Men do not have the same expectations placed upon them and it is almost accepted in society that male criminality stems from socialisation into masculine aggressive traits as a child. Relates to functionalism - if girls go against the expectation then they can have negative stigma Women are more likely to be shamed and labelled negatively by society

Answer 258

Boys given toys with weapons. Girls given baby dolls

Answer 259

It is not always the case, this idea of double jeopardy could make a judge and jury harsher

Answer 260

Carlen (1998) conducted a study of working class women with criminal convictions and suggested that women conform to the class deal and the gender deal. She used Hirschi’s control theory to argue that women act rationally, when offered a reward for conforming they do not commit crime, yet will commit crime if the rewards are greater than the risk. She says women gain rewards through two deals: The class deal = rewards that arise from working in paid employment and the ability to buy consumer goods. The gender deal= is the rewards that come from working in the home and family life such as emotional rewards and financial support. If these rewards/deals are not available, then this is when crime becomes likely.

Answer 261

No, many feminists act on the idea of being independent and not relying on men for support os work. Poverty or having experienced bad relationships may fuel this further

Answer 262

They may accept that we live in a consumer society but it would be a generalisation to say they all buy into the class deal. Not all want a family. People reject capitalism

Answer 263

Postmodernism looks at individualism. We don't all do the same as each other but for some there deals still exist. Men also make a class and gender deal

Answer 264

Agencies of social control work to discourage people from choosing crime over conformity. Heidensohn (1996) suggests there is an ideology of different spheres with men dominating public spheres of pubs and clubs in which most crime is committed and women the private sphere of the home. The different agencies include: 1) Private domestic sphere of the home- responsibilities for childcare and housework leave little time and opportunity for crime. 2) In the public sphere outside the home women are controlled by the fear of sexual violence and harassment which limits options to deviate. 3) Women face the threat of their reputation being destroyed if they engage in deviance with the applications of labels such as ‘slag’ or ‘slapper’. All these put greater pressure on women to conform as there are greater risks to them if they break the law.

Answer 265

The chivalry thesis suggests that more paternalism or sexism on the part of the CJS, such as the male dominated courts, means women are treated more leniently than men. Otto Pollak (1950) argues that men have a protective attitude to women and they dislike accusing and punishing women; from the police all the way to judges. Evidence for this is that crimes from the Home Office who found that females are half as likely to get a custodial sentence as their male counterparts. Female offenders are also seen as less serious by the police and therefore may be given a lesser sentence by the police such as a warning.

Answer 266

Don't want girls going out, encourage them to stay in, boys socialised to go out and play

Answer 267

Christine English - PMS defence Farrington and Morris studied 408 offences of males and females and found there was no difference in sentences. The study is very outdated. It challenging the chivalry thesis that it isn't based on much evidence

Answer 268

Rates of female imprisonment are rising. Double jeopardy and expectations of femininity so people may judge more harshly. Media will portray female offenders differently from males in an increasingly negative way. In crimes towards children they may receive a harsh sentence

Answer 269

Adler (1975) argues that growing female criminality may be a result of changing gender roles. Women in Britain have now got more rights and a more successful in education and the labour market. Denscombe (2001) found that there is a much more masculine ladette culture. Women are now binge drinking, risk taking and becoming involved in gang culture.

Answer 270

Feminists wouldn't like the definition because masculine terms are being used to describe behaviour which isn't stereotypically females which presents the idea that it is wrong for females to do and is not actually liberation. Liberal feminists acknowledge that progress has been made e.g., women now work and women can go on the pill

Answer 271

The idea of edgework is where people take a risk to achieve thrill. Pick and mix. We live in a media saturated society. Women now have more choice so traditional values aren't accepted

Answer 272

Was sentenced to life in July 2015 prison for killing her two children and placing their bodies in a freezer. She pleaded guilty to torturing and killing her 13 year old daughter and 9 year old son. She claims to feel no remorse. More likely to get a harsh sentence because it was a crime against children - sex role theory

Answer 273

Killed her three year old son whilst learning to drive as she accidentally struck him. She did not have a provisional licence and was driving illegally. She has not been charged but banned from driving. Chivalry thesis

Answer 274

Confessed to her prison officer that she was more wicked than her fellow Moors murderer, Ian Brady, as she admitted she knew what she was doing was wrong. She expressed her love for the elderly and children, despite being one of the most infamous child killers in the last 100 years. Liberation thesis - now has the opportunity to say what she really thought

Answer 275

Suggests hegemonic masculinity leads to criminality. As males try to reaffirm their masculine status by showing qualities such as aggression, control and power which often lead to subordination of women and criminality

Answer 276

Men are subject to the criminal gaze -CJS assumes ideal criminal

Answer 277

Argues men sometimes turn to crime to reassert their masculinity when legitimate means of being a 'real man' are blocked e.g., loser their job, family or status. Men will seek masculine validating resources such as violence against women and fights other other men. Can link to subcultures - turning to criminality because gangs provide status

Answer 278

During the period from the year 2000-2008 the number of female arrests for violence rose by an average of 17% per year. Schwartz (2009) argues that rather than this reflecting more violent female crime it actually shows that the criminal justice system is widening the net. Lind (2006) agrees suggesting that policies that encourage more arrests has led to a steep rise in females appearing in violent crime stats. Jock Young (2011) refers to this as “defining deviance up” to catch trivial offences in the net.

Answer 279

"Women who say no do not always mean no. It is not a question of how she says it, it's how she makes it clear. If she does not want it, she would keep her legs shut". Victim blaming

Answer 280

Winlow (2001) studied bouncers and argued that this allowed for both illegal and legal activities. The legal side is being the bouncer, the illegal may be dealing in drugs, duty free tobacco and using violence to assert authority. He argued that men now use bodily capital – they use their physical appearance through body building to look the part.

Answer 281

* 26% of the prison population, 22,683 people, are from a minority ethnic group, while only 14% of UK population is * Black men are 26% more likely than white men to be remanded in custody. They are also nearly 60% more likely to plead not guilty * BAME defendants were more over-represented in prosecutions for robbery (39%), drug offences (39%), and possession of weapons (31%) * The overall adult reoffending rate in 2018/19 was 30% for White offenders, 31% for Black offenders, and 24% for Asian offenders * In 2019, 6% of judges and 12% of magistrates identified as belonging to a BAME group * Estimates suggest that 21% of lawyers working in law firms in 2019 were BAME: 15% were Asian, 3% Black, 2% mixed ethnicity, and 1% ‘other’ * Black people nine times more likely to face stop and search than white people (for all BAME people that figure was 4.1 times higher than for white people) * Black people make up 3% of general population but 12% of adult prison population

Answer 282

Racism in employment means that EMG are more likrly to be unemployed so don't meet the goals of money. Leads to them turning to other means e.g., crime to achieve goal

Answer 283

Cannot achieve goals because of cultural deprivation leads to educational failure and unemployment --> suffer status frustration --> delinquent subculture

Answer 284

Lack of male role models in particularly afro-caribbean families --> unemployment

Answer 285

Typifications - typical delinquent so labelled as criminals

Answer 286

Marginalisation --> can't get a job --> material deprivation --> different means (Crime)

Answer 287

Stephen Lawrence was a British Black Male who was murdered in a racially motivated attack whilst waiting for a bus in April 1993. This is one of the highest profile racist killings in UK history as it led to changes both within society and to attitudes in the police force. It also led to policy changes as two of the perpetrators were tried twice for the same crime, leading to a conviction almost 20 years later. During the investigation 5 people were arrested and not convicted, this led to questions being asked about racism in the police and courts. This led to the MacPherson report, which was a public enquiry in 1998 that concluded the police are institutionally racist.

Answer 288

The MacPherson enquiry highlighted that institutional racism is occurring but the stats suggest this hasn't actually changed. Suggests the police continuously fail to protect families of victims and don't support them

Answer 289

- Stop and search - Discrimination in sentencing - Institutional racism - Over representation in prison

Answer 290

As a result of the direct action - Mistrust of police - Social characteristics

Answer 291

- This study used material produced by the Macpherson Report of 1999. - Reiner picked up on the idea from the report of ‘institutional racism’ within the police - He identified what he called a ‘canteen culture’ were new police were expected to hold and express certain attitudes which were sexist and racist - Those who didn’t conform were treated as outcasts - These attitudes spilled over into police work and made them target black youths more frequently

Answer 292

Suggested black crime was a political act fighting back against oppression Black crime figures were inflated by police stereotypes and racist attitudes Because black community was powerless their actions were selected for particular attention e.g. drug use

Answer 293

Bowling and Phillips (2011) would argue that it is not ethnicity but poverty and the exclusion from society that leads to the high number of EMG convicted of crime.

Answer 294

Media portrayal. Asian communities portrayed as criminals due to recent terrorist attacks e.g., 9/11 and Manchester bomb. Labelled --> SFP

Answer 295

1. Sociologists dispute how far some ethnic minorities are more criminal. Opposing stats and the issue of social constructivism 2. Some such as New Right argue dysfunctional families and welfare dependency are to blame. Underclass commit crimes because they don't have correct role models SFP 3. New Left would point to economic and social disadvantage. People commit crime for survival. EMG more likely to be in poverty 4. Others including interactionists would suggest ethnic minorities are unfairly targets. Typifications are racial stereotypes which are unfair

Answer 296

- Some victim studies show much crime occurs within ethnic groups e.g. Black on black - Ethnic minorities appear to have higher rates of victimisation but this could be because they are already in high risk groups (young, working class, inner city etc.) - Two crimes where ethnic minorities have much higher rates of victimisation are homicide and racially motivated (hate) crimes - The police recorded 54,000 racist incidents in the year 2014-2015 - But note; what constitutes a racially motivated crime is problematic so this will not include all racist attacks - Surveys show many ethnic minority groups express a higher level of ‘fear of crime’

Answer 297

Corporate crimes are becoming increasingly global and transnational with corporations moving staff and money around the world to avoid prosecution. They also shift manufacturing to where the health and safety regulations and state controls are less than in the west. - They also shift manufacturing to where the health and safety regulations and state controls are less than in the west. - Modern technology has also increased the opportunity of global and transnational crimes. - Without cooperation it can be difficult to prosecute offenders from other countries. Held and McGrew (2007) Globalisation involves a process of deterritorialization this means that social, political and economic activities are no longer attached to one country but are transnational and stretched across the globe.

Answer 298

Karofi and Mwanza (2006) argue that globalisation has led to a growing criminal economy and new types of crime have emerged. 1. Illegal drugs trade 2. Human trafficking 3. Money laundering 4. Cyber crime

Answer 299

The global drugs market is worth over $322 billion- this is higher than the GDP (gross domestic gross and services produced each year) in 88% of countries around the world. This also contributes to local crime rates as people need to raise the money to buy these drugs once they are exported to the UK.

Answer 300

This is the illegal movement of smuggling people for a variety of reasons from sexual exploitation to forced labour. This also includes the illegal removal of organs for transplants. This is also related to illegal immigration

Answer 301

This is concerned with making money that was obtained illegally look legit. This is necessary for drug dealers etc. that deal in large amounts of cash they need to clean their money to avoid detection. This is done through technology and makes it difficult for law enforces to track.

Answer 302

Refers to crimes using new media usually the internet. Cyber-crime is the fastest growing of criminal activities in the world. Both web based crimes and the use of the web to make contacts e.g. make a terrorist network. Detica (2011) estimates cyber-crime costs the UK £27 billion each year.

Answer 303

Castells argues that globalisation has created transnational networks of organised crime, which operates in many countries. These employ millions of people and often work in conjunction with the state and legitimate businesses. Farr (2005) argues there are 2 main forms of global criminal networks. 1) Established Mafia – like the Italian American mafia, the Chinese Triads etc. These are long standing groups based around tradition and family and take advantage of globalisation. 2) Newer organised crime groups – which have emerged since globalisation and the collapse of communism in Russia and Eastern Europe.

Answer 304

Glenny (2009) Uses the term McMafia to describe how transnational crime mirrors the activities of legal corporations such as McDonalds, who seek to provide the same goods and service all over the world. In a sense, they, like McDonalds, are operating as purely self-interested economic organisations which instead of fast food provide sex, drugs, guns, body organs, porn etc.

Answer 305

- Use the concept ‘glocal’ to explain how crime has developed. - This means it is still locally based but has increasing global connections - Locally based criminals supply local markets with drugs, prostitutes, counterfeit or smuggled goods which they buy from national ‘chains’ who themselves deal with global ‘businesses’ - The driving force is economics with poorer nations supplying richer nations with illegal goods

Answer 306

Economic globalisation has led to more crimes being committed by elites. TNCs shift production to developing countries or hire illegal immigrants

Answer 307

Lash and Urry (1987) argue that globalisation has been accompanied by less regulation and fewer state controls over business and finance – they refer to this as disorganised capitalism. Corporations now work within global markets, moving money, manufacturing, staff and waste to keep profits high and labour costs low. 1. Growing inequality (link to Taylor/ Cohen) People need jobs so will work for low wages 2. Global supply and demand (link to Ritzer) This is increasing so companies find cheaper alternatives 3. More opportunities for crime (link to rational choice) Increase in tech crime 4. Cultural globalisation/ ideology of consumerism (link to Young/Left realism) More consumerism so companies mass produce for little money exploiting workers 5. Growing Individualism (link to Bauman)

Answer 308

- Adopts a postmodernist view which states there has been an a rise in global risk consciousness The threat to people used to come from locally based crime and criminals but this has changed to include global threats such as terrorism - Because of this increased awareness of global threats individuals feel less secure - Also governments seek to control borders and immigration which can increase tensions between different racial/ethnic groups - This in turn can increase hate or racially motivated crime

Answer 309

The prevention and prosecution of global crime requires policing and other CJA to operate internationally using agencies such as the UN, Interpol (international police organisation) and Europol (European police office)

Answer 310

+ This is a valuable research area as it is focussed on some of the more serious and dramatic forms of crime placing them in a global context. - However the secretive nature of global crime makes it difficult to investigate and it may require specialist skills. Reliable stats may not be available. - Some people argue the focus on global crime distracts from the focus on local crimes which have a real impact on people’s daily lives.

Answer 311

Green and Ward (2005) define state crime as illegal or deviant activities perpetrated by or with the complicity of the state. It includes genocide, war crimes, torture, imprisonment without trial and assassination.

Answer 312

Cohen (2001) uses a transgressive approach and argues that the scope of criminology should be expanded to include crimes committed by the state, and HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES. States, and their agents, may commit crimes and illegal human rights abuses which contravene the laws of their own countries or binding international agreements.

Answer 313

Eugene McLaughlin (2001) identifies 4 categories of state crime: 1. Political crimes – censorship and corruption 2. Crimes by security and the police e.g. genocide, torture and the disappearance of individuals. 3. Economic crimes e.g. the violation of health and safety laws 4. Social and cultural crimes such as institutional racism.

Answer 314

Torture of citizens, corruption, assassination, war crimes, genocide

Answer 315

1. The mass murder and torture of thousands of political opponents of the Gaddafi regime in Libyia 2. Pol Pot – Communist dictator - Between 1975 and 1978 in Cambodia the government of Pol Pot killed 1/5 of the country’s population. 3. Guantanamo bay – The most controversial American Prison camp based in Cuba. Was ordered to close by Obama in 2009 and in 2013 155 prisoners remained. Frequent reports of torture are shown from here. 4. Even the UK were found guilty of using white noise torture on IRA suspects and in 2012 the ministry of defence paid £14 million compensation to Iraqis illegally detained during the Iraq invasion

Answer 316

This involves embezzling money from national resources. Zimbabwe's dictator Robert Mugabe's reign was dominated by fraud and vote rigging

Answer 317

The Russian state is widely believed to be behind the 2018 attempted poisoning of Sergei Skripal and his daughter. The USA led the assassination of Osama Bin Laden and Saddam Hussain

Answer 318

This involves illegal acts such as murder, ill treatment, torture or deliberate enslavement of a population. Isreal have been repeatedly condemned for their treatment of Palestinians

Answer 319

The Rwanda Genocdial mass slaughter of ethnic Tutsis by ethnic Hutus took place in 1994 int he East African state of Rwanda in 100 days, 500,000 people we killed

Answer 320

Herman and Julia Schwendinger argue that we should define crime in terms of the violation of human rights rather than the breaking of rules. If a state practises racism or sexism or economically exploits its citizens it is violating human rights and should be guilty of a crime. Transgressive Criminology. In this view the definition of crime is highly political. For example, the Nazi’s simply made it legal to persecute Jews. If we accept the legal view, we may become subservient to whatever the government decides. The Schwendingers argue that Sociology should defend human rights- this again is transgressive criminology because it goes beyond traditional criminology as defined law.

Answer 321

Human rights suggest that everyone, because of common humanity have the same human rights. The UN declaration of human rights 1948 established a legal framework for enforcing human rights. O’Byrne (2012) argues that the state are increasingly assessed by the extent to which the preserve human rights, and the by the extent the in which they fail to do so through injustice, discrimination, torture, violence, slavery or genocide.

Answer 322

Laws introduced to strip rights of asylum seekers. Restrictions on the right to peaceful protest

Answer 323

Integrated theory, the crime of obedience model

Answer 324

This suggest that crime arises from similar circumstances to those of other crimes and consists of 3 elements opportunity, motivation of offenders and failures of control methods

Answer 325

Kelman and Hamilton (1989) they suggest violent states encourage obedience by those who carry out state backed human rights abuses in 3 ways: 1. Authorisation – saying it’s in line with policy 2. Dehumanisation – Creating sub-humans and marginalising the victims by stripping their identity 3. Routinisation- this involves creating a routine violence and destruction. Swann (2001) argued this creates ‘enclaves of barbarism’ places where violence is encouraged and rewarded.

Answer 326

1) There is not enough agreement on what constitutes human rights therefore using human rights violation as an indicator of state crime is problematic 2) It is difficult to find out the true extent of state crime as governments either deny or attempt to justify their actions 3) Some people argue that it is necessary to go beyond the limits of the law in fighting terrorism, claiming that assassination and torture are ‘necessary evils’ 4) It is very hard to research state crime as perpetrators will be hard to access. As a result, our knowledge of the topic is based on media coverage and secondary documents which may contain bias. There is a huge ‘dark figure’ of state crime 5) Tombs and Whyte (2003) point out that researchers are likely to face strong official resistance as they can use their powers to refuse sociologists funding, refusing access to documents and in some countries they risk imprisonment and torture.

Answer 327

Wall points out that green crime was traditionally used to describe actions that break the laws protection the environment

Answer 328

Lynch and Stretsky (2003) believe green criminology should study ‘individuals or entities who/which, kill, injure and assault other life forms (human, animal, plant) by poisoning the earth’

Answer 329

* Volkswagen, 2015 * BP Deepwater Horizon, 2010 * Union Carbide disaster Bhopal, 1984 * Chernobyl, 1986

Answer 330

Violated the clean air act by installing illegal software into their diesel vehicle

Answer 331

Oil spill off coast of the US in the Gulf of Mexico, killed 11 people and 800,000 birds

Answer 332

45 tons of gas escaped from the plant, polluted the groundwater

Answer 333

Explosion at nuclear power plant, killed people and polluted the area and the water

Answer 334

If introduced into environments can affect biodiversity

Answer 335

Don't cause damage to the environment

Answer 336

For Beck, the major risks we face today are of our own making. E.g. Global warming. new technology and productivity have created new dangers which are global rather than local. Beck calls late modern society ‘global risk society’

Answer 337

resulting directly from the destruction of the Earth. These include-air pollution, deforestation, species decline, water pollution.

Answer 338

this comes of breaking the rules that could prevent environmental disasters. These include – state violence against opposition groups and illegal waste dumping.

Answer 339

Can have a powerful cumulative impact on the environment through things such as littering and fly tipping

Answer 340

This can be corporate crime such as the breach safety regulations and dump toxic waste to save money

Answer 341

The military is the largest polluter. Nuclear arms and warfare causes a lot of damage to the environment

Answer 342

Wolf points out that organised crime has great involvement in environmental crimes as global networks use the environment to dump waste cheaply

Answer 343

Wolf argues that there are inequalities in the distribution of harm and risks to victims caused by environmental destruction in both how laws are made and enforced. Poorer countries White (2003) argues that those living in the developing world are at far greater risk of environmental crime.

Answer 344

EU wide: The Environmental Crime Directive National: Laws against fly tipping, pollution

Answer 345

Communities of colour are disproportionately burdened with health hazard through policies and practices that force them to live in proximity to sources of toxic waste such as sewage works, mines, landfills as a result suffer greater rates of health problems

Answer 346

 White (2008) argues that green crime arises as TNC and nation states have anthropocentric views of the world. This suggests that the most important consideration for the nations is the wellbeing of its citizens through economic growth and the environment is a secondary consideration.  Wolf argues green crime is motivated by the same factors as ordinary crime such as rational choice, strain and control theories.  Pearce (1976) argues that the most serious green crimes of the powerful arise from criminogenic capitalism

Answer 347

1. Different definitions - considered a crime by some and not others 2. Different laws - trouble transporting thing 3. Difficulties in measurement 4. Use of isolated case studies

Answer 348

+ Evaluation of green criminology: It recognises the growing threat of environmental issues and provides a focus to examine some of these risks It is too broad a field of study because it operates outside legally defined boundaries. It is thought to be too based on values and therefore not objective enough. It is referred to as eco-global criminology. - Problems of definition: If zemiology believes that any act that harms the environment can be considered a green crime then basic everyday acts and omissions such as driving a car or not recycling can be seen as criminal, and this is plainly ridiculous!

Answer 349

- Easier to extract oil and gas so has allowed drilling firms to access difficult to reach places for oil and gas - Helps reduce reliance on gas imports

Answer 350

- Uses huge amounts of water that must be transported - Potentially carcinogenic chemicals used may contaminate ground water

Answer 351

- Criminal and deviant activities are mainly carried out by the young especially between 14 and 24. The peak age is 15-20 with young males more likely to offend than females. 1/3 of those convicted are 10-21. AO3: Stats are socially constructed so the over representation of young people is not accurate because they are police typifications

Answer 352

Distinctive values seen in young people. Smartness, trouble, excitement, toughness, autonomy and fate

Answer 353

Young people believe in goals of society but when living in poor areas don't give them legitimate means to do so. So often form delinquent subcultures and commit crime

Answer 354

Youths are often in subcultures, those in anti-school subculture can be led into criminal ones because illegal careers were available meaning they could achieve society's goals

Answer 355

Young males drawn to crime because it is thrilling - joyriding

Answer 356

Commitment, attachment, involvement and belief. An adolescent may not have strong bonds to society causing them to commit crime. They may not have many commitments so have the opportunity and time for crime

Answer 357

Deviance occurs through techniques of neutralisation

Answer 358

Snider says that there is a disproportionate prosecution of WC criminals. Laws that appear to be in favour of the WC act as a hegemonic curtain. Cohen would say that WC youths are the police typification so are more often a suspect of things like stop and searches Laballed --> SFP --> actual crime