Media - Paper 2 Flashcards

Question

How does Gauntlett criticise media violence?

Answer 1

Most studies are conducted in artificial context so lack validity. Not clear on the definition of violence - do different types of violence have different effects. Fails to put violence into context

Answer 2

Suggests that the media do have an effect on the audience. It does not regard the audience as simply passive consumers of media texts, with the media having a direct effect, instead they believe that it has more of a 'drip-drip' effect, gradually influencing the audience. It recognises that the media are owned and heavily influenced by the dominant and most powerful groups in society, and their interests strongly influence the content of the media keeping with the dominant ideology

Answer 3

The most powerful groups are heavily influencing the media. Media owners will spread the dominant ideology. Dominant ideology involves these groups spreading their norms and values/ It is dominant groups norms and values. They would do this to persuade opinions to maintain their power. Divide and rule - for the media to make profit a by-product of the way journalists have been socialised and brought up

Answer 4

Most people coming to believe that media perspectives on particular issues are correct and these reflect a consensus that generally fails to challenge ruling class ideology. Example: Benefit scroungers The media conveys the image of benefit scroungers and leads people to having prejudice views. This could lead to conflicts because of divide and rule. Because of the hierarchy, there would be an opportunity for revolution out this doesn't happen because of the control from the bourgeoisie Cultural effects theory argues TV is dumbed down

Answer 5

Tabloid newspapers are guilt of ideological practices. By focusing on individual issues our attention is diverted from collective societal issues. The popular press support a 'common-sense' view of the world that helps to maintain and justify existing inequalities

Answer 6

Media has a great deal of power informing the way audiences view the world, suggesting that most people accept the dominant media account presented. But, he does acknowledge that audiences are active and in some cases can be critical if they have access to alternative forms of information In his 1984/5 miners' strike study he found that audiences from different class and political backgrounds saw these images and interpreted them in the same way

Answer 7

1. The sample saw the ideological message that the miners were to blame 2. Sympathy for miners was weakened by what people read and heard 3. Those who had not witnessed the strikes saw it as violent and legitimate 4. Very few rejected the message that the miners were to blame

Answer 8

If the audience have no direct experience or knowledge of an issue when the ideological power of the media message will be strong and likely to shape an individual's view of the social world. He argues that the cultural effects model needs to be 'dynamic' and account for the fact that people may internalise or reject media messages based on their personal experiences

Answer 9

Katz and Lazarsfeld

Answer 10

Suggest that personal relationships and conversations with significant others, such as family members, friends, teachers and work colleagues, result in people modifying or rejecting media messages. They argue that social networks are usually dominated by an opinion leader i.e., people of influence whom others in the network look up to and listen to.

Answer 11

Suggests that media messages have to go through two steps or stages. Consequently, media audiences are not directly influenced by the media. Rather, they choose to adopt a particular opinion, attitude and way of behaving after negotiation and discussion with an opinion leader. Media sends out message --> opinon leader shares media message to individuals --> Individuals decide if they agree or not

Answer 12

- Not all audience is passive - Sees the impact of messages on some of the audience - Looks at audience relationships - Considers background of audience

Answer 13

- Too deterministic with just two steps - Excludes the socially isolated - Argues most of the audience are passive - Suggests there are two types of audience member

Answer 14

Hall - a part of the reception analysis model

Answer 15

Media texts are encoded with a particular meaning, which they expect media audiences to believe. Media is encoded by those who produce the media, such as owners, journalists, editors and TV produces. This encoding is what Hall calls the dominant hegemonic viewpoint, which takes the dominant ideology for granted and accepts it as the normal, natural and only sensible way of viewing social events

Answer 16

Most audiences will interpret or decode media texts exactly as they were intended because the views of the dominant class appear normal, natural or reasonable

Answer 17

Applied Hall's approach of encoding and decoding on the 1970s news programme Nationwide. Morely found audiences were far from passive and were much more active. Instead, audiences made up their own minds and there was significant opposition to views in the programme. When people do accept the ideological position it was because they had personal knowledge and experience of the issue

Answer 18

Preferred, negotiated and opositional

Answer 19

Audiences interpret or decode media texts in the same way they were encoded in the first place and in the way media producers would prefer. For example, a preferred reading could be that most welfare benefit claimants are workshy ‘scroungers’.

Answer 20

The media audience generally accept the preferred reading, but may amend it to some extent, to fit their own beliefs and experiences. For example, they might accept that most benefit claimants are probably ‘scroungers’, but not all as they know of some really deserving cases.

Answer 21

A minority may reject the preferred reading altogether. For example, rejecting the view of ‘scroungers’ and seeing claimants as really deserving as they face unemployment and inequality.

Answer 22

Younger people may be more likely to be preferred reader and older people because of their perception of younger people

Answer 23

Preferred reading supported by HSM Negotiated reading supported by cultural effects Oppositional reading supported by 2 step flow

Answer 24

The average person belongs to several subcultural groups and this may complicate a person’s reading of media content. For example, a young British College student may respond to Brexit in a number of ways: 1) As an Educated Student, who was not permitted to vote. They may feel Brexit is unfair as it will be their futures most at risk 2) As a British person, they may feel a sense of sympathy for those who voted to leave Europe, out of sheer frustration with the system 3) As a Young person, they may feel that Current affairs is fairly boring and consequently not show much interest.

Answer 25

A moral panic is a wave of public concern about some exaggerated or imaginary threat to society, stiffed up by exaggerated and sensationalised reporting in the media.

Answer 26

Believes that the audience are the most ACTIVE and that the media has little effect on the audience. Rather than seeing the media as manipulating and influencing the audience, they believe that the audience use the media in various ways for their own various pleasures, needs and interests (gratifications).

Answer 27

Blumler and McQuail

Answer 28

Diversion, Personal relationships, Personal identity, surveillance and background wallpaper

Answer 29

Leisure, entertainment and relaxation purposes in order to escape from daily routine and to get out from under problems and to ease worries and tensions Example: Watching TV, listening to a podcast Who? People who work full time

Answer 30

To keep up with family, friends or companionship through identification with media communities like coronation street. It can be used as a conversation starter, to establish new relationships with people you've never met e,g., FaceBook Example: social media, TV Who? Anyone

Answer 31

To explore and confirm people's own identities or to seek out a new source of identity e.g., trends Example: social media and tends, reality TV - Drag race Who? More likely to be younger people

Answer 32

To access information about current affairs, to find out about the world, to make your mind up about issues that might affect you Example: Watching the news, social media, newspapers Who? Mainly older people - don't tend to change opinions, voters

Answer 33

To have on whilst doing other things Example: TV, Radio, Music Who? Anyone

Answer 34

He did a web survey of those who were members of Facebook groups finding they used it for diversion, personal relationships, personal identity and surveillance

Answer 35

'Needs' referred to be the model, may be manufactured by the media. They argue that in a capitalist society, the mass media promote the ideology that consumption and materialism are positive goals to pursue. The bourgeoisie control the media so will gain and maintain power and profit from unecessary consumption marketed as needs - seen in trends

Answer 36

- Designer clothing - Holiday goods - Black Friday/Boxing day sale - Busy social life - Sports cars

Answer 37

This model recognises the role of the audience – suggests they are active. The model suggests that audiences hold the power and dictate the content. It recognises that people use the media in different ways.

Answer 38

The model underestimates the power of the owners. This model ignores how groups and interactions impact on how we use the media. The model ignores structural factors that mean similar people respond in the same way to the media.

Answer 39

Concentration of Ownership. In 1983 50 corporations controlled all the media in USA and in 1992 just 22 companies owned and controlled all 90% of mass media in USA. He argues that if each area of the media in USA was owned by individuals there would be 25000 owners. By 2011 media ownership in the USA was totally dominated by only 5 corporations: Time Warner, Disney, News Corp, Viacom, and CBS.

Answer 40

If companies all have the same viewpoint they will transmit one dominant ideology and won't focus on a range of problems. Hegemonic curtain

Answer 41

Cyber media is dominated by Apple, Samsung, Microsoft and Google. There is also concentration of ownership here, as traditional companies compete with cyber media organisations to control social networking sites for advertisement revenues:

Answer 42

Traditionally most countries developed their own media but due to increased globalisation media is now shared worldwide. There has been consumer resistance to globalisation of the media – Marxists predicted that this would happen – that media companies would join forces and take over. Globalisation has meant people can access media from anywhere

Answer 43

Used to describe the way countries are culturally penetrated by American values through films etc. through "Hollywoodisation" and even more so through social networking sites

Answer 44

Concentration of ownership of British newspapers is not a new phenomenon. In 1937, four men, known as the ‘press barons’- owned nearly one in every two daily newspapers sold in the UK. Today seven companies dominate newspaper ownership some of which are controlled by specific individuals: The Sun, Daily Mail, Guardian, Times etc.

Answer 45

In the 1950s and 1960s, Murdoch acquired a number of newspapers in Australia and New Zealand before expanding into the United Kingdom in 1969, taking over the News of the World, followed closely by The Sun. In 1981, Murdoch bought The Times, his first British broadsheet. In 1986, keen to adopt newer electronic publishing technologies, Murdoch consolidated his UK printing operations HarperCollins and The Wall Street Journal . Murdoch formed the British broadcaster BSkyB in 1990 and, during the 1990s, expanded into Asian networks and South American television. By 2000, Murdoch's News Corporation owned over 800 companies in more than 50 countries, with a net worth of over $5 billion.

Answer 46

Has decreased because different forms of media are more popular. Can access news from social media anywhere and is free

Answer 47

Another way for the bourgeoisie to control the proletariat views and opinions. The leftist view is catered to the proletariat so without it being shared there will be no revolution

Answer 48

Horizontal and vertical integration, diversification, synergy, technological convergence and global conglomeration

Answer 49

Cross media ownership – where big media companies own a wide range of media. TV, radio, cinema etc. Example: BBC, ITV, Disney, Sky

Answer 50

Some media companies are trying to control all aspects of the media to ensure maximum profits. Example: Murdoch, Amazon Prime, Now TV

Answer 51

When companies branch out into a new area of media to spread the risk of loss. This may be unrelated to the media but it means if they lose money in one area they have a safety net. Example: Amazon, Apple, Meta

Answer 52

Media companies are using their different interests to package products in several ways for example a film soundtrack, game, and ringtone as well as clothing and merchandise. Example: Disney, Football, Youtubers

Answer 53

Relatively new concept = several technologies in one product. For example you can use you phone, TV, computer can access the net. Example: Apple and Whatsapp

Answer 54

Where media companies operate in the global market producing for example newspapers in several countries. Example: Murdoch, Musk, Amazon

Answer 55

- Blackmail - Leaking CCTV or briefings - Hold press conferences - Give bribes - Surveillance of work email - Censor media through surveillance -Refuse to give broadcasting licences - Desensitisation

Answer 56

Ofcom: In 2003, the Office of Communications was established as a supposedly powerful regulator of the mass media, with responsibilities across television, radio, telecommunications and wireless services: The BBC: regulated by the BBC Trust and partly by OFCOM. The government also has the opportunity to influence the corporation over 10 years when the licence fee is determined. Independent Press Standards Organisation (IPSO) established in 2014 to regulate the newspaper and magazine industry replacing the discredited Press Complaints Commission (PCC).

Answer 57

- A public eqnuiry into the culture, practices and ethics of the British Press started because it was found that journalists at Rupert Murdoch's News of the World hacked the phone of murdered Milly Dowler - The government and Murdoch worked together to censor some media and spread others - UK media companies now share the same news with the same ideology to not go against the government

Answer 58

No dominant ruling class, but many competing groups with different interests. All these different interests are represented in the media. The owners do not directly control the content of the media, but, rather, what appears in the media is driven by the wishes of consumers – audiences will simply not watch TV programmes or buy newspapers that do not reflect their views. The mass media is also essential in a democratic society to ensure there is a platform to express the views of each political group. Most people get their knowledge of politics from the media – pluralists argue that owners are objective and impartial facilitators to this process.

Answer 59

Pluralists suggest that the behaviour of media ownership is constrained by the market. Free market means that media owners compete against each other to attract an audience. READERS HOLD THE POWER – to buy or not to buy? If unhappy, they can change to a new paper.

Answer 60

Media owners have global problem of trade investment to occupy their minds so do not have time to think about the day to day running of their media business.

Answer 61

Postmodernism - individualism, depends on owners.

Answer 62

Media diversity, Public service broadcasting, state controls and media professionalism

Answer 63

Pluralists argue the range of media products available is extremely diverse and as a result all points of view are catered for. Therefore, it is not biased as all views are accounted for. The media mirrors what the audience see as important Example: Left and right wing papers, TV - sexuality, ethnicity and race

Answer 64

a significant share of the media in the UK is taken by public service broadcasters and controlled by the state. BBC (1926) is controlled by the state and this outweighs the bias of the public sector.

Answer 65

No - Jimmy Savile - Silenced anyone who spoke out and let him keep working as he brought in a lot of viewers and money

Answer 66

pluralists argue that the media is restricted by state controls. Some societies have banned certain media in order to reduce dominant viewpoints.

Answer 67

Pluralists stress professionalism of journalists and editors and they argue they would never compromise their independence and have too much integrity to be biased. Example: Journalists in the Milly Dowler case hacked the phone's voicemail, they did this to many other people to gain information, this was unprofessional. They also hacked high level politicians and the royals

Answer 68

Pluralists also point out that the media have a strong tradition of investigative journalism which has often targeted those in power. In recent times the media highlighted the incident with Dominic Cummings travelling to see his family in the North-East during lockdown. Pluralists suggest that an audience does not accept what is fed to them through the media. All audiences are critical and diverse - Uses and grats

Answer 69

- There is a wide range of newspapers, magazines and TV channels that reflect a huge range of interests. Including those that challenge the dominant ideology. - The fight for audiences and competition with other companies means that the mass media have to cater to their audiences tastes otherwise they will go out of business. - The diversity of the media enables investigative reporting to take place which can challenge the power and interests of the dominant class. - Journalists are not simply pawns of their employers they have some editorial honesty and independence and often are critical of dominant ideals. - Curran argues that there has been an increase in cheque book journalism and a serious decline in serious and political news. Therefore they are no longer writing stories that could bias opinion as people are focussed on human interest and celeb gossip articles.

Answer 70

- Hegemonic theorists would argue that people have been socialised by the media themselves into the belief that they have been provided with what they want. The media has created their tastes so what the audience want is really what the owners have told them they want. - Media owners strongly influence which is appointed at senior levels of the media and all those in power usually share similar views and an outlook on the world. - While managers, journalists and TV producers have some independence they work within the constraints placed on them by the owners. This then gives the powerful members of society more influence. - Not all groups in society have equal influence on editors and journalists to get their views across and only the rich have the money to launch media companies that they can use to get their views across. - The owners have on numerous occasions sacked uncooperative editors and both governments and rich individuals have brought political and legal pressure to stop programmes that threaten their interests. - The pressure to attract audiences does not increase media choice but limits it – the media declines in quality and news gets sensationalised as the media targets the mass market with unthreatening and unchallenging bland content.

Answer 71

Plays an important role in spreading the dominant ideology. The media control access to the knowledge which people have about what is happening in society, and encourage them to accept the unequal society in which they live. The media creates a climate of conformity among the mass of the population which justifies the rule of the rich and powerful and leads to a state of false class consciousness. Ideas that challenge or threaten the status quo are ignored. He sees the media as an instrument through which the RC is able to manipulate media content and media audiences in its own interests

Answer 72

- Owners of the media, like newspapers owners have direct control of the content of the media and they can and do interfere with the media content. - The owners of the media aim to spread ideas (the dominant ideology) which justifies the power of the ruling class. - False class consciousness. - Media managers have little choice other than to run the media within the boundaries set down by the owners. - Journalists depend for their jobs on supporting the interests of the owners – the reports they write are biased. They censor the reports to avoid criticism of interests of the dominant class. They do not write stories that challenge the status quo. - The audience is assumed to be passive – a mass of unthinking robots. This audience is given a limited range of opinions and is manipulated through a dumbed down mass diet of undemanding, trivial and uncritical media. – fallacy of choice

Answer 73

1) There is evidence to suggest that owners manipulate the content of their media. E.g. Murdoch supported the war in Iraq as did his papers. - Spreading dominant ideology, people will believe it, only source of info, passive - Philo and miners 2) In 2007 Murdoch admitted to the communication committee he was “hands on both economically and editorially” He had overall control - James Whale: don't have time to think about day-to-day running AO3 3) The Leveson enquiry also highlighted the complex relationship between governments and media owners Hacking

Answer 74

1) The state regulates media ownership so no one person has too much influence. Ofcom 2) Audiences are active and able to understand media messages. RAM, decoding and encoding - oppositional readers 3) Neophilliacs suggest the rise of digital media and citizen journalism has led to a decline in the influence of the dominant ideology. Increase in cheque book journalism so decrease in serious and political news so dominant ideology isn't being spread 4) Pluralists argue the wide range of media and the need to make profit gives the audience not the owners the power. Media diversity - need to cater to the people's needs to make profit which reduces dominant ideology. Audience mirrors what is seen as important - reader holds power, active

Answer 75

It also implies that media owners are in an ideological conspiracy to brainwash the population- they only have anecdotal evidence that the media damages democracy. The key debate here is to what extent is the audience Active or Passive * In Italy, Berlusconi’s control of 3 TV stations that reached 40% of the viewing population led to his party winning the election in 1994 and him becoming Prime Minister. * American law restricts cross media ownership, unlike the UK where Rupert Murdoch dominates media companies in terms of ownership

Answer 76

4 distinct periods where the integrity of the journalists have been affected by the owners. * 1920-1950 rise of the press barons- controlled the content of the media based on own interests. * 1951-1974 Curran argues that this was the pluralist phase and saw a rise in investigative reporting. * 1974-1992 Owners such as Murdoch created papers for profit not ideological viewpoints. Murdoch shifted his papers to support right wing politics to capitalise on the interest and make money. * 1997- Present day Curran argues this is based on global conservatism- in 1997 Murdoch encouraged his papers to support Blair.

Answer 77

This is a more recent, NEO-MARXIST approach that argues that the mass media spreads a dominant ideology justifying or legitimizing the power of the ruling class. It differs from the manipulative approach by suggesting this is not carried out by the direct control of owners and direct manipulation of journalists, media content and the audience. It recognises the power of the owners, but suggests that they rarely interfere in media content. Rather this approach emphasizes the idea of HEGEMONY: Hegemony was developed by Gramsci and refers to the idea that through the spread of ideology other classes are persuaded to accept their values and beliefs become part of everyday common sense. This approach suggests that the dominant ideology of the ruling class is shared by media managers and journalists so they spread the dominant ideology by choice as it seems reasonable and sensible rather than that’s what they are told to do by media owners. 1. Owners of the media, like newspaper owners rarely have direct control of the content of the media. Day – to – day control and the media is left in the control of the managers and journalists. 2. Media managers and journalists while inevitably influenced by the desire not to upset the owners and protect their careers also they need to attract audiences and advertisers - the dominant ideology often helps attract audiences. 3. Journalists support the ideology as they tend to be white, middle class and male and are socialised into professional values. Any ideas that challenge the status quo seem unreasonable, extremist and not to be taken seriously. 4. These common-sense assumptions shared by journalists mean the audience are only ever exposed to a limited range of opinion.

Answer 78

Suggests media does not support capitalist ideas but that this is a by-product of the social back grounds of the journalists. Top 100 journalists 54% independently educated. GMG claims journalists believe these views as they believe that they appeal to the majority of their audiences. They believe everyone who does not believe this is an extremist. They are motivated by profit not controversy.

Answer 79

Philo looked at the media coverage of the 2008 banking crisis. He argues that the media presented views and solutions from the establishment- the very people who had caused the crisis and wished to maintain the status quo

Answer 80

UK society has undergone fundamental changes in recent decades, so that we are now living in what they call a ‘postmodern age’. In the postmodern age, service industries concerned with the processing and transmission of information, and knowledge and servicing consumption, e.g. the mass media, government, finance and retail, have become more important than the factory production of manufactured goods. Postmodern life has become so chaotic that metanarratives (or blanket explanations) are no longer relevant as people make choices based on a range of individual factors - Lyotard.

Answer 81

They argue that society has become media saturated. They argue that as a result popular culture now shapes our identity rather than family, community, gender or class. Example: TV is dumbed down and not educational - reality TV Social media increasingly popular changing opinions and views

Answer 82

The media shapes our consumption as we now have greater choice and global influences. Example: Social media, Globalisation and targeted adverts

Answer 83

They argue the media defines our identity and lifestyle and determines how we think and feel about ourselves. We can pick and mix parts of the media to shape our sense of self. Example: influencers act as opinion leaders promoting things, we compare and change ourselves, trends allow us to pick identity

Answer 84

The media tells us that the consumption of brands and logos should be a large part of our identity. Example: influencers promote expensive brands

Answer 85

Many people feel they no longer belong to real communities so take part in media communities of social networking, blogging and fantasy gaming Example: Love Island, not wanting to work and be an influencer, on phones constantly

Answer 86

Baudrillard argues that we are living in an age dominated by the media- media saturated society. Our knowledge of the world comes from the mass media. Our identities are formed in terms of images that come from the media. Hyperreality and Simulacra: Baudrillard also argues that society is now ‘media saturated’ Consequently the media influences the way we see the world.The media creates a view of reality that is distorted, producing images that are ‘more real than reality’, in other words ‘hyperreality’. The media presents us with ‘simulacra’, artificial copies of events which bear no relationship to the real world which are viewed around the world.

Answer 87

Bitcoin, drama in coronation street

Answer 88

Doesn’t just reflect reality, it creates it through shows such as TOWIE, Made in Chelsea, Dance Moms, I'm a Celebrity, The Real Housewives of Cheshire and through social networks such as Facebook. This leaves audiences confused between the media and real life.

Answer 89

Coronation Street - someone sent in £5k to get a character released from prison, wasn't real but thought it was

Answer 90

You are what you buy, modern life is like a shopping mall. * We can pick and choose our lifestyle and our identity. Structures like class or family background no longer apply, matter or restrict individuals. * This element of choice suggests people are active, have free will and can act without constraint

Answer 91

Emphasises importance and power of media in shaping consumer choice. Popular culture such as the cult of celebrity, and media images that bombard us daily through a variety of media such as smart phones, social media, TV, radio etc. increasingly dominate how we define ourselves. The media creates our desires and pressures to consume, we use it to shape our identity; we use media imagery to shape how we see ourselves and construct how others see us. It’s not the quality of the item but the trend that matters, the brand name. In films it’s no longer the story that matters but the special effects and the soundtrack or which big named star is the lead.

Answer 92

Have contributed towards a risk society. Media saturation leads to risks

Answer 93

1. Exaggeration of social change: Influence of class, gender and religion. Media not as important as these factors 2. Generalisation about consumer choice: People who are oppressed will have consumer choices still affected. Ignore lack of consumer choice because of socio-economic status 3. A justification for uncontrolled capitalism: Marxists - creation of fallacy of choice, false manufactured needs

Answer 94

referred to the world as a global village connected through new media. He argued media “shrinks” the world to be one village or community. People use new media to research things before buying or doing something

Answer 95

Media owners often own worldwide companies, working with companies across the world. E.g., Murdoch branched out to other countries Criticism: Bagdikian 22 companies owned 90% of media in USA

Answer 96

Netflix can be accessed worldwide - people can watch the same shows around the world. This means we share the same culture in regards to TV shows

Answer 97

Internet access is available worldwide. People use the same platforms so access the same media. Networks such as O2 allow people to use data across the world

Answer 98

Mass production of products across the world. Globalisation allows for companies to advertise globally which spreads the popular culture E.g., advertising same product in different countries

Answer 99

- Gaming - can play with people across the world - Music - can access a different culture e.g., KPop - We bond over entertainment and sharing cultures

Answer 100

The evolution of new media technologies has played an important role in the development of a global popular culture. Globalisation has undermined national and local cultures, with cultural products and ways of life in different countries of the world becoming more alike e.g., food, clothing and music. It may now be more appropriate to speak of a global culture than of national or local cultures.

Answer 101

AKA Mass culture. It is highly commercialised, mass produced and standardised. Popular culture is sold to a global mass market to make large profits for global corporations. Popular culture is aimed at popular tastes, and is simple, undemanding entertainment.

Answer 102

Music, TV, films, food, Makeup stemming from dominant countries to others

Answer 103

- People change cultural things e.g., food - manipulating, not exact representation of the culture, not as authentic - We lose a sense of originality and what is ours in our culture - Different countries profit off popular culture - capitalism

Answer 104

Special, respected, and treated with reverence. It has links to cultural heritage and is often found in galleries, museums and theatres. High culture also includes serious factual TV, such as the national news and documentaries. The content is usually detailed, political and analytical.

Answer 105

Everything is being commercialised -- high culture is becoming popular culture. Marxism - capitalist society - profit and money-making Postmodernist - media is so saturated so there will be a blue of what is true or not an a culture making it a popular one

Answer 106

Elements of high culture have now become part of popular culture and vice versa. He argues there is no longer any real distinction between the two and it is ever more difficult for one set of ideas to dominate society. Therefore, there is a blur between high and low culture.

Answer 107

Postmodernists (cultural optimists) are supporters of globalisation Marxists (cultural pessimists) are against globalisation of popular culture

Answer 108

It provides both economic and cultural benefits. It also allows people more choice over their identity and lifestyle. This has led to cultural hybrids. This is where two cultures are combined and new or different forms of the culture emerge. E.g., global restaurant chains differ in menu to suit tastes of different cultures Striniati argues this choice allows people to challenge the messages transmitted through the mass media. For example social media is so saturated that it caters to everyone's views - postmodernism. People are more active in society so will be critical of what they think is wrong Livingstone found that writers and producers of soap operas, a form of popular cultures watched by millions see them as a way to educate individuals on controversial issues, politics, and the harsh realities of life. Soaps challenge issues such as rape, incest, child abuse, homelessness, alcoholism. This in turn promotes public discussion and support for those who need it. For example shows such as coronation street show real issues to educate people

Answer 109

Argue that the media is simply mass produced, manufactured global infotainment (Thussu) with the aim of creating profit and to protect the ideology of the ruling class. For example Murdoch's companies were made for profit not to spread factual and important news. He also worked with politicians who spread the ruling class ideology Marcuse suggested the consumption of the media has undermined the audience’s ability to think critically. He argues this is a form of social oppression – a means of locking people into the present system and preventing revolutionary change. Kellner supported this point by stating that globalisation had led to sameness, where everyone shares the same values and ideas. Harvey suggests that the introduction of digital TV has led to the decline in quality of popular culture as companies fill channels with cheap imported TV shows, reality TV and gambling. He argues that this leads to a ‘candy floss culture’ that speaks to everyone but no one in particular.

Answer 110

Fenton argues the term global rarely means universal and normally disguises the domination of western values over other cultures. This has been described as cultural imperialism. The process of countries becoming more alike is called cultural homogenisation.

Answer 111

Western values dominate mass media, these ideas are spread to other countries. Many owners who own lots of media are from western countries so will spread those values in there companies within those countries. Local countries will listen to these values creating a blue between their own culture and western ones HOWEVER: doesn't reach everyone due to digital divide 0 3rd world countries

Answer 112

Ritzer shows how companies and brands operate on a global scale promoting global culture and consumer lifestyles. This weakens local culture. Apple - all products available worldwide Netflix - stranger things Amazon - products, TV shows and music Samsung - range of products Sony - range of products Ritzer argues this leads to McDonaldisation. He explains it occurs when a culture possesses the characteristics of a fast-food restaurant.

Answer 113

Efficiency, calculability, predictability and control

Answer 114

This is where the norms and values of Disney are spread around the world. Through what we see in the media, we start to see life as an adventure, a never-ending theme park with many twists and turns but with an idyllic end. The Disney princess gives young girls all over the world an unrealistic view of beauty, men, and most of all love.

Answer 115

Screen-based, digital technology

Answer 116

Digitality, Interactivity, Collective intelligence, Virtuality

Answer 117

Using computers, where all data are converted into numbers which can then be stored, distributed and picked up using screen-based products such as phones, TV and computers. Boyle (2005) notes this allows information to be delivered across a range of platforms due to convergence. Example: Phones, computers, news apps, location sharing, sharing bank details, apply pay Criticism: Marxists would say its more inaccessible - digital divide

Answer 118

Where the audience can interact with the media, creating their own media rather than passive consumption. Users interact and create media using web 2.0 or through voting on TV programmes. Jenkins (2008) argues this has led to participatory culture – media companies rely heavily on the audience to contribute to the content. Example: Love Island, Social media - spread ideas in comments Support: Postmodernists - using media to create identity, uses and grats - audience active Critical: HSM - all audience is passive and accept everything they see

Answer 119

Users interact with each other creating a buzz Jenkins (2004) points out none of us know everything but we each know something and if we pool this together we have collective intelligence which contradicts the power of media owners. Example: social media, sharing ideas and teaching others, sharing cultures and religions Support: Postmodernists and pick and mix Critical: Candyfloss culture, Marxists and digital divide

Answer 120

Refers to the various ways people can immerse themselves in the media and create imaginary online identities. Example: Catfishing, social media persona, content creators, photo shop, online trolls

Answer 121

Helsper - there is a digital underclass forming in Britain with those in low employment levels and education falling into this Livingstone and Wang argued this is getting worse, as people's progress required digital skills but these had not improved. Those who lack confidence to engage with media risk social exclusion and communication poverty - digital divide, online applications Designer clothing - people see difference in the importance of designer clothing. Those of lower classes value things differently, upper class will have better education so will keep inherited wealth. Dutton and Blank found 91% of those with a higher education had access to the internet compared to 34% with no formal qualifications

Answer 122

Boyle - the generational gap in media use is because younger generation have grown up in a media saturated era and have used it in education and employment 16-24 are 10X more likely to go online via mobile compared to those 55+

Answer 123

Boys spend more time on internet - spend 3X more time watching online videos. Women more likely to use social networking sites Li and Kirkup suggest there is an increasing number of women online and the gender gap is narrowing, once online, men and women use it differently, men are more confident - email and chatrooms whereas women underestimate their abilities with new media

Answer 124

Large media owners are in first world countries so increase digital divide. Europe - 82.1% have internet Americas - 60% Commonwealths - 60% Arab states - 40.3% Asia - 39% Africa - 10% Can increase quality of life with internet access - healthy recipes, workouts, those in less developed countries don't have this access

Answer 125

New media - general public, free Mass media - big companies The use of traditional media has decreased because new media is more accessible. Many forms of traditional media are no longer used as new media is more popular. There is also a larger range of new media than traditional media so new media is more accessible and caters to more viewpoints. New media criticises views of traditional media as it spreads the dominant ideology

Answer 126

1) Shifts in traditional news flow cycles – News production relies on a flow of information from trustworthy individuals, the rise of citizen journalism; when the public rather than journalists –collect, report and spread news stories, has created not only a huge increase in the quantity of information but also increased the speed of information. If an article is posted online, it is shared globally immediately. Traditional media no longer control the flow of information. This means journalists have less time to process the news with 24-hour demand. 2) Heightened accountability- Citizen journalism has made traditional media organisations more accountable to the public as their reports are scrutinised and responded to online and through blogs. News corporation’s try to tackle this by offering transparency in online material. 3) Evolving news values – Some important news values influencing reporting have been emphasised through new media. In a competitive market the traditional media companies need to beat the competition providing live coverage and up to date news stories from around the world. Values of news organisations begin to change as traditional stations include non-professional material from YouTube videos and citizen reports.

Answer 127

Easier to spread false news. Stories don't go through the fact-checking and editing that traditional does. Easy for people to lie with new media. Two step flow and encoding and decoding says people are passive and new media says people are active. The audience decodes as they want to

Answer 128

Growing use of new media technology like smart phones and tablets has meant that traditional news outlets struggle to make a profit as people access it online. This leads to further concentration of the media and gives corporations such as Facebook, Google and Apple more power.

Answer 129

The quality of news decreases. as the company needs to put out the news as quickly as possible. The news content will consists more of citizen journalism to do this quickly

Answer 130

New media has meant that elite groups have less power to push their own news agenda. Top-down control of media owners is replaced by cultural chaos, anarchy, disruption, dissent, openness and diversity. The power balance has been shifted – the readers now hold this power.

Answer 131

That there are two views: cultural optimists and cultural pessimists

Answer 132

See the new media as playing a positive role in society – those who like, rapidly embrace and adapt to new media technology and are avid users of new media.

Answer 133

This has a more negative view of new media in society and believes it is another form of social control.

Answer 134

More informed consumers, wider choices and more user participation. - More public interaction and engagement - watching documentaries on streaming services - Postmodernists - pick and mix - People engaging more means that they're more educated - UK media audiences have a choice of over 500 TV channels and millions of websites. Consumers have more opportunities to participate in using and producing media content through social media sites

Answer 135

There is now a narrower political aspect as people are empowered by their voice in the new media. Also there is a wider conception of democracy as the right to ideas and freedom of expression. McNair (2006) argues information is power, readers create content, social movements use the media to spread their ideas, protest groups use the media to spread a message, bloggers also spread messages. No one group calls the shots on the content. - Political groups can share their ideas to educate and fix societal issues - New media educates people and raises awareness - societal injustices - The internet is accessible to anyone therefore there are greater opportunities to report, criticise and publish. Democracy is improved if people are better informed in who and what they are voting for

Answer 136

More informed consumers, greater democracy, more access to all kind of information, the world becomes a global village and social life is enhanced

Answer 137

- Can educate yourself before going to the GP, unnecessary time wasting. - Social media sites enable news and information articles to come to the attention to those who missed them - People have more power in daily lives to access all kinds of information

Answer 138

As suggested by McLuhan – new media breaks barriers in rime and space to make the world a smaller place. - People now research before buying something - reviews which reduces overconsumption. - There is greater understanding of different cultures because space and time barriers have collapsed in human communication, different cultures brought together

Answer 139

As people share global culture and build a globalised identity from the media saturated society - 1.8 billion monthly active users on TikTok. This allows people to share cultures. Strinati - no distinct divide between popular and high culture - this is because of people sharing their culture through new media. - Postmodernists see new media as enhancing social diversity and enabling peopler to share their culture and identity. - Social media has enhanced the global village because people can stay in touch using it. New media is creating a common culture and shrinking the world

Answer 140

Problems with validity of information, cultural and media imperialism, a threat to democracy, a lack of regulation, commercialisation and limited consumer choice, increasing surveillance and the undermining of communities

Answer 141

It’s difficult to know who the source of the information is, to know if information is true or fake or if material has been hacked. - With new media, things are not fact-checked. Anyone has a place to state what they think which reduces validity. Traditional media goes through many stages before being published

Answer 142

Western ideas and values dominate the rest of the world through the media. - Rupert Murdoch: owned Western media so spread the dominant ideology. Western media has the most powerful companies and owners so this is spread to other countries. New media has led to an imposition of western technology and cultural values on non-western cultures undermining their features and independence

Answer 143

As not everyone can access the media due to the digital divide and this can also be used as a source of control. MacKinnon (2012) uses the concept of the sovereigns of cyberspace to describe how large companies such as apple and google now own so much media they have more power than the government Curran and Seaton (2010) argue they have power yet no responsibility. Mackinnon (2010) argue that repressive regimes use the new media and control the use of this. They censor material and use it to surveillance their citizens. This has also been seen in western countries. - This undermines democracy and freedom of expression - People who have access to digital media are higher in class. The RC will then spread the messages as it affects important people

Answer 144

Due to the vast nature, there is very little control over the internet, there is no national bodies such as OFCOM. This leads to undesirable. - Lack of regulation means that anyone can share their opinions. This could lead to arguments but also false information being published and believes. Undesirable things such as pornography, internet crime, drug smuggling etc. can thrive as a result of the new media because there is limited regulation on such issues. There has been an increased amount of cyber bullying as a result of new media, especially via social networking sites

Answer 145

There is a fallacy of choice as media content may be vast but all the same. The digital divide also means not everyone can choose equally. Seymour and Curran (2009) showed how poor-quality content was used to attract audiences alongside tabloidisation of popular culture. - Postmodernists say we live in a society of individuality and pick and mix. However, because of the digital divide, those without access end up seeing poor quality content without varied viewpoints so are passive. - Preston states that while the new media offers consumers the choice of what they want to read or look at, they don't bring their attention to things that they didn't know they wanted to look at

Answer 146

There will be an increase in withdrawal from society as people use the ability to communicate and they will also lose social capital. People are not socialising in person so lose skills therefore lose social capital. There has been an increase in social isolation and because people spend so much time in the online world there is a loss of social capital

Answer 147

The new media has been used to increase formal and informal social control. Within new media, powerful companies are still able to dictate what is shown. People's opinions are public so are held accountable for their views so social control is higher with active media, people have choice over what they believe - readers have control. Mobile signals can be used to track users

Answer 148

Glamourised, romanticised, dramatised, sensationalised, articles use emotive language, experts, video footage, images, formal dress, scripts, scientific - stats, body language hidden by desk

Answer 149

News is selected to spread the dominant ideology and to benefit the bourgeoisie. They'd say that certain news is selected to control the opinions of the working class - false class consciousness. Hidden messages encoding and decoding. Media owners may select stories that create a hegemonic curtain which helps to divert attention away from real issues of social inequality

Answer 150

Pluralists argue that there is no dominant class, therefore readers have the control over what is selected otherwise companies wouldn't make sales. Owners have no control over the media - James Whale

Answer 151

Couldry (2007) argues that this as led to a lack of public trust in the media especially in young audiences as we are aware that there is a lack of objectivity in reporting. The mainstream media are large business and ran with the need to make a profit. The source of a lot of this profit is advertising, particularly on social media and websites. This is why there is so much concern over TV ratings and the number of hits a website receives. If audiences are small this will put advertisers off using this as a means to advertise their products.

Answer 152

suggests that the importance of advertising means news reports are created in such a way to avoid offending advertisers with stories watered down or killed off all together.

Answer 153

Agree arguing to attract a higher number of consumers news stories need to appeal to everyone and offend no one – unless it offends a few, but attracts more new consumers. This leads to conservatism in the media – this means minority views are not presented. Barnett and Gaber (2011) argue that such pressures lead to a less critical approach to reporting politics.

Answer 154

Cohen (1963) stated that the news may not be successful in telling us what to think but they are successful in telling us what to think about. McCombs (2004) suggests that news media is not just telling us what to think about but also how to think about certain subjects

Answer 155

The media’s power to refuse to cover some issues and to let others through is called GATE-KEEPING. McQuail (1992) argued that ‘news’ is not objective or impartial. Events happen, but this does not guarantee that they become news. The reality is that news is actually a socially manufactured product as gatekeepers such as editors, journalists and sometimes owners, make choices about what events are important enough to cover and how to cover them. Stories that pose a threat to the status quo or dominant ideology will not be reported.

Answer 156

- Jimmy Savile - Boris Johnson party

Answer 157

The miner's strikes could have caused a chain reaction of protests so do not cover it in the media as it was a threat to the status quo

Answer 158

Julian Assange set up Wikileaks in 2006, this is a non-profit organisation which has leaked classified information on state affairs such as the war in Iraq: war logs and state crimes in Guantanamo bay.

Answer 159

This describes the way the media reinforce conformity to social norms and seek to isolate those that do not conform by making them targets for unfavourable media coverage. This is achieved in two ways: 1) Encouraging conformist behaviour: Such as not going on strike or breaking the law, this also works by reinforcing gender roles. 2) Discouraging non-conformist behaviour – the media may exaggerate stories on acts of violence or riots, illegal immigrants and football hooligans. They emphasise the consequences for those who break social norms. This is achieved through media representations and agenda setting and gate keeping.

Answer 160

London Riots - discouraging non-conformist behaviour - harsh sentences

Answer 161

The media owners tend to ensure that the content is politically conservative and that their outlets promote cooperate values. The media often seem uninterested in issues such as the class gap etc. Journalists try not to offend part of the audience as they will then lose consumers – this may leave the media bland. Journalists are all of a similar background – white, middle class and male. Criticism: media is broader now

Answer 162

Herman & Chomsky (1988) argue that the media participate in propaganda campaigns helpful to elite interests. They suggest that media performance is largely shaped by market forces and that the capitalist system has filters inbuilt to shaped media output. They argue there is solidarity between the wealthy owners and the government as they provide the information sources. The media are under threat of losing funding from large organisations or government support so therefore the content is controlled. The media are also controlled by the virtues of free- market capitalism and the conservative ideology that does not support any alternative

Answer 163

Stuart Hall (1973) agrees that the media supports capitalist interest because those in powerful positions have better access to media institutions than those less powerful. Hall argues that most journalists rank the opinions of police officers, politicians and business leaders as more credible than pressure groups, trade unions or ordinary people. He calls this group Primary definer and this the hierarchy of credibility. There has been an increase in spin doctors in recent years – powerful people make news.

Answer 164

Represented as bad because people were rioting against the conservative government and those in power

Answer 165

Power elite produced propaganda to introduce the poll tax to help elite interests

Answer 166

Some sources more credible than others - Hall politicians more credible

Answer 167

Is where the media over reports and makes an issue seem worse than it is. It causes panic in society as it is a threat to society. Exaggeration, can create divide within the community, scaremongering

Answer 168

Mods and Rockers, London Riots, Islamophobia, AIDS, immigration

Answer 169

Used the term moral panic to describe the media reactions to particular social groups or activities that are defined as threatening to societal values. This creates anxiety which leads to the pressure on authorities to control this behaviour/group.

Answer 170

The media report on an activity/incident using sensationalist language and headlines --> Follow up articles identify a group as a problem/folk devil --> The media oversimplify why the activity/issue occurred e.g., a decline in morality --> Moral entrepreneurs e.g., politicians, religious leaders make statements condemning the group --> There is a rise in the reporting to the police of similar activities due to public concern --> The authorities stamp down hard on the group/activity --> The group may react by becoming more deviant --> More arrests and convictions happen due to moral panic and the initial media prophecy is fulfilled

Answer 171

People are more active so area aware of fake news. This means that moral panics are shut down before it insights fear into society

Answer 172

People have the chance to spread moral panics and create more fear within society, it also allows for people to create moral panics

Answer 173

Goode & Ben Yehuda (1994) now that the moral panic produces a folk devil – a stereotype of deviance that suggests the perpetrators of the act are evil & selfish and steps need to be taken to stop their actions. * They also note that moral panics arrive suddenly & disappear quickly. * They can also lead to changes in policy & law. Example: Islamophobia, benefit scroungers etc.

Answer 174

A reaction to social change, a means of making profit, a reflection of people's real fears and serving RC ideology

Answer 175

Furedi (1994) argues moral panics occur due to rapid social change as a way to gain control. He argues they are based on wider concerns. For example in the 1950’s young people got more economic power and at the same time concern as arose over youth culture.

Answer 176

Some sociologists argue that moral panics are just products of news values and the desire of journalists to sell papers. Moral panics sell newspapers. After a while an issue loses news worthiness, and a new moral panic needs to be created.

Answer 177

Left realists argues that moral panics should not be dismissed as they have a real basis in reality. The media often identify groups that are a real threat in inner city areas. They argue that moral panics are justified in some cases.

Answer 178

Marxists such as Hall see moral panics as serving an ideological function. His study of black muggers suggested that the moral panic created served the ideological purpose of 1) Turning whites against blacks (divide & rule) 2) Diverting attention away from capitalism 3) Justifying repressive laws. Moral panics make it easier for the powerful to oppress the general public.

Answer 179

McRobbie and Thornton (1995) claim that the concept of moral panic is both outdated and in decline. Their argument is that the media has become more developed, whilst at the same time the media's audience has become increasingly sophisticated. They argue that media generated moral panics are now less common. This is because of 24/7 reporting and intense competition between media organisations and different types of media. Web based blogs, social networking sites, satellite TV and the change in demand for print media have changed the reaction of audiences to events that may have once caused a moral panic. Pluralists and postmodernists argue that diversity of media reports on events and the opinion of the audience through citizen journalism that people are now much more sceptical of media headlines and less likely to believe them. Most events now also have a short shelf life as they will not be newsworthy long enough to build an audience. This links to Postman’s concept of a ‘3-minute culture’. - Everything in politics and media needs to be presented as entertainment to keep people's attention - dumbed down TV - attention spans Dog eat dog - WC attack Wc rather than people above

Answer 180

- You hear news stories from around the world - more diverse media - Don't have to pay for news - newspapers - Broad range of media, different cultures and religion, new media - internet (globalisation) - News is selected for profit, not solely for sharing/raising awareness - Pluralists - increased state control

Answer 181

Thussu argues that the globalisation of television and the global competition between media conglomerates has led to TV news becoming tabloidised or more like entertainment. He called it global infotainment – designed to inform whilst at the same time entertain. The emphasis is on crime, celeb culture, corruption and violence rather than current affairs. This is accompanied by a global feel-good factor based on western consumerist lifestyles. He says this works by diverting people’s attention away from serious issues such as war and global inequality. This provides evidence that global news lulls people into an uncritical state of passivity, making them less likely to challenge the dominant ideals.

Answer 182

Sources of news, profit, time available and deadlines, the audience and the rise in citizen journalism

Answer 183

- Rise of new media has decreased the use of traditional media as it is free, accessible, quick and has a broad range of views - News is selected to gain readers

Answer 184

- Tabloidisation to get viewers/readers, new media contains more celeb-based media which causes traditional media to try and keep up with this to gain readers and profit - New media uses adverts to make profit on news sites

Answer 185

- With 24-hour news, the most important news items are selected as the process is long - writing, printing, distributing - New media is quicker to produce so may have more news stories put out so people will use new media?

Answer 186

- Traditional news focuses on one political side - The Sun is aimed at everyone whereas the Telegraph is aimed at those more educated - New media can target multiple audiences as it is quicker to produce and often uses citizen journalism

Answer 187

- Within new media, the general public can share their views and be citizen journalists - This cannot happen with traditional news - News is selected in the new media to cater to a broad range of views in it

Answer 188

Originally devised by Waseem Zakir, to describe the trend whereby journalists are uncritically churning out articles based on second hand news agency reports, pre-packaged press releases and other sources. Davies (2007) found that 80% of stories in The Times, The Guardian, Independent, Daily Mail and Daily Telegraph were wholly or partially constructed through second hand news. Jewell (2014) showed how advertorials, (branded news stories) were becoming increasingly appearing on online news sites e.g., “New M&S advert, watch it here first”. This blurs the line between advertising and news.

Answer 189

- Because of times and deadlines, secondhand media is used to quickly put out news stories and media - This can link to companies main focus being profit and not making good quality news - Sources of information and news in new media are often not checked with allows for secondhand news to be used - news is often exaggerated which causes people to share incorrect things

Answer 190

Companies compete with each other so exaggerate to attract people which causes incorrect secondhand media - They churn out media

Answer 191

Alternative sources can be used to overcome or bypass biased news reporting, globalisation and new media has led to a rise in citizen journalism: Philo and Berry from the GMG (2011) found the British coverage of the Palestinian Israeli conflict relied heavily on from official Israeli perspectives, lots of the media focussed on Palestinian militants and ignored assassinations by Israeli forces. Ashuri (2012) Showed how citizen journalism can help overcome this bias. In her study of Machsom Watch (a women's organisation that help monitor human rights of Palestinians), she showed how the group offered alternative views through their own reports, videos and photos on their website.

Answer 192

Bivens (2008) suggests citizen journalism through mobile phone pictures and video recording at the scene of news events and audiences blogging and creating news through social media has led to the transformation of news reporting. Bivens points out that these have been used to expose corruption by politicians, celebs, the police and private institutions. Citizen journalism makes these individuals more accountable for their actions. When news is uploaded, it attracts a large audience around the world who can then share this and make it go viral.

Answer 193

- George Floyd - 2010 Haiti earthquake - JFK assassination - Nicola Bulley

Answer 194

This can be associated with programmes such as Charlie Brooker’s Newswipe, the Mash Report, Russell Howard’s Good News, Mock the Week and through citizen journalism on social media such as Twitter and Facebook. Funny programme which helps people keep on top of news and current affairs

Answer 195

Extraordinariness/ Unexpectedness, Threshold, Unambiguity, Reference to elite persons, Reference to elite nations, Personalisation, Frequency, Continuity, Narrative, Negativity and composition

Answer 196

Unexpected, rare, unpredictable and surprising events have more newsworthiness than routine events because they are out of the ordinary Charles.A.Dana… “if a dog bites a man, that’s not news. But if a man bites a dog, that’s news!’ Example: Women in a relationship with a ghost - Good Morning Britain

Answer 197

The ‘bigger’ the size of the event, the more likely it will be nationally reported Example: Ukraine and Russia, Turkey earthquake

Answer 198

Events that are easy to grasp are more likely to be reported than those which are open to more than one interpretation, or where some prior knowledge is needed to fully understand the content The Colombia Journalism Review (2000) found that the most regular reason why stories don’t appear is that they are ‘too complicated for the average person’ A03: Unambiguity can be criticised by coverage of the economic crisis which often goes into complicated detail about complex ideas such as ‘quantitative easing’. Example: Love Islanders breaking up - Everyone understands, not complicated

Answer 199

The famous and powerful are often seen as more newsworthy to the general public than those who are regarded as ordinary. This can be linked to the ‘cult of celebrity’. Example: Pictures of Meghan Markle or Kate Middleton on the front of magazines can increase sales massively. Meghan and Harry wedding, Boris Johnson party

Answer 200

Stories about people who speak the same language, look the same, and share the same preoccupations as the audience receive more coverage than those involving people who do not. EXAMPLE: The loss of a few lives in a Western country may achieve recognition, whereas a considerable number of deaths would have to occur in a developing country to achieve similar recognition. McLurg’s Law claims that 1 dead Briton was worth 5 dead Frenchman, 20 dead Egyptians, 500 dead Indians and 1000 dead Chinese in terms of news coverage. Example: Nicola Bulley death - White English woman, Shukri Abdi - somali refugee. Palestine V Ukraine

Answer 201

Events may be ‘personalized’ by referring to a prominent individual or celebrity associated with them. Complex events and policies are often reduced to conflict between personalities EXAMPLE: British politics is often presented as a personal showdown between the two party leaders. Labour V Conservatives

Answer 202

Murders, motorway pile-ups and plane crashes happen suddenly and their meaning can be established quickly. However, more long-term structural social trends are often outside the ‘frequency’ of the daily papers. EXAMPLE: Inflation of unemployment only tend to be reported when the government releases figures on them. Dutton (1997) referred to frequency as ‘the time span taken by the event’ Example: Nicola Bulley - unexpected and speculation of what happened could be made into more news stories - increases longevity and increases profit

Answer 203

Once a story has achieved importance and is ‘running’, it will continue to be covered for some time. Moral panics are sometimes the result of such continuity. EXAMPLE: Coverage of Madeleine McCann’s disappearance in 2007 is still making headlines today

Answer 204

Journalists present the news in the form of a story with villains and heroes. It has a beginning middle and an end to make it more interesting. If an event can be presented in this way it is more likely to be reported. Example: The war in Iraq has been presented in this way with a newsworthy narrative with the brutal unelected leader as the villain and the USA and UK as the heroes. Yet the truth is much more complex.

Answer 205

Bad news is regarded by journalists as more exciting and dramatic than good news and is seen as attracting a bigger audience. Example: Stories about death, tragedy, bankruptcy, violence, damage, natural disasters, political upheaval or extreme weather conditions are always rated above positive stories. Palestine, Ukraine Fiske (1987) refers to an American journalist arriving in the Belgian Congo during the war there, running up to a group of white women waiting for a plane to leave and shouting: ‘Has anyone here been raped and speaks English?’

Answer 206

Most news outlets will attempt to ‘balance’ excessive bad news or foreign news with some items of a more positive or local nature. EXAMPLE: After time, coverage of the Syria conflict was relegated below less serious domestic stories. Covid balanced with fundraising for charities

Answer 207

British children are often depicted in the UK media in fairly positive ways. Content analysis of media products suggest that certain ‘deadly stereotypes of children’ are frequently used by the media. As victims of horrendous crimes, as brilliant, as accessories and as brave little angels

Answer 208

In the news and also in drama series, children are often victims of crime, including murders and abductions. - Madeline McCann - James Bulger

Answer 209

Children in the media are often brilliant at something, such as mathematics or a musical instrument. News and magazine programmes often report on such child prodigies and they also make interesting characters in fiction. - 'Boy genius' aged 8 passes GCSE maths with highest possible grade

Answer 210

Celebrity reporting often includes children, not as interesting individuals in their own right - but as “accessories” or “extras” alongside their famous parents or guardians. - North West

Answer 211

Often children are represented in an idealised way, as being innocent and without malice. This is particularly the case in older television series and family fiction.

Answer 212

Issues affecting children such as racism, child abuse and domestic violence were rarely discussed within the media. However, in recent years there has been a trend towards showing more realistic drama often from a child’s point of view (e.g. Channel 4’s Growing Up Poor documentary).

Answer 213

Bocock argues that exposure to media has led to pester power; children want products to increase their status. Example: toys, TV shows, games. Globalisation means that everyone can access this media, brands publish adverts directly to children for increased profits. This is an example of disneyfication

Answer 214

Youths (from around the age of 15 to the early 20s) are often portrayed as a ‘problem group’ in society, and as a major source of anti-social behaviour, particularly young working-class, and especially Afro-Caribbean males. The mass media often generate excitement by creating stereotypes of young people as troublemakers, layabouts and vandals, and by exaggerating the occasional deviant behaviour of a few young people out of proportion. Marxists would say this negative representation of WC youth means that the bourgeoisie can keep them in there WC position through divide and rule. Left realists talk about how WC crime is against other WC. This is because of the media representations enforcing this divide

Answer 215

found that the media gives a one-dimensional view of youth encouraging fear, particularly from the older generation. They argue it distracts from the real problems faced by youths e.g. unemployment, homelessness.

Answer 216

found that young people were dissatisfied with how they are portrayed in the media as disrespectful layabouts and felt it was far from reality.

Answer 217

Mods and Rockers. The media used 'symbolic shorthands' such as hair styles, items of clothing, modes of transport as icons of troublemakers

Answer 218

The process of underrepresenting older people in the media or misrepresenting them in a prejudiced way. Old age is generally represented as an undesirable state; being poor, in ill-health, forgetful, asocial, incapable of work and personally difficult and grumpy. Loos and Ivan claim there are two different representations of the elderly in the media. They claim there is the ‘third age elderly’ who are represented as living their ‘golden years’ or ‘a second childhood’ and the ‘fourth age elderly’ who are incapacitated and unable to live independently.

Answer 219

Third and fourth age elderly

Answer 220

Represented as living their 'golden years' or a 'second childhood'

Answer 221

Represented as incapacitated and unable to live independently

Answer 222

The elderly are overlooked by the media – they are rarely consulted as wise elders with information to pass on. Cuddy and Fiske (2005) showed that in the US only 1.5% of characters on TV were elderly and when they were shown they were in minor roles used for comic relief, with physical or mental impairment. White et al (2012) found that older viewers thought they tended to be stereotyped, especially middle aged and older women – who were often ignored completely. They accused the media of being out of touch with an ageing society. The emphasis on youth and beauty suggests ageing should be avoided at all costs.

Answer 223

Szmigin and Carrington (2000) found that advertising agencies were wary of using models that they considered might alienate/put off younger audiences. A03: However, with the ageing population and the commercial value of the ‘grey pound’ we have seen more adverts like the Dove Pro Age campaign where elderly models were used.

Answer 224

The money that older people as a group have available to spend. This may give the illusion that the wealth have a lot of money to spend

Answer 225

- Domesticated women - Usually men have power - Women are helpless - damsel in distress - Recently have been showing strengths - Men are the saviour - true loves kiss - Unrealistic beauty standards

Answer 226

- Females are submissive to men and portrayed as helpless - Unrealistic beauty standards - Men expected to be tall and muscular - Instagram - photoshop - Pressured to look a certain way - Women preferred to be less sexually experienced and are shamed

Answer 227

Ferguson (1983) conducted content analysis between 1949 & 1974.She notes that these promoted a cult of femininity which promotes traditional ideals – caring, family marriage appearance etc. Example: Kardashians, Real housewives, female politicians sexualised AO3: Functionalists talk about nuclear families, feminists say that this has changed, women work and are independent

Answer 228

Wolf (1990) suggests that the images of women used by the media demonstrate the beauty ideal, which suggests that women should constantly improve their bodies. Girl Guides (2020) – 48% of girls and young women who participated in the survey said they use filters to ‘make themselves look better’ online. Example: Adverts targeted to women are about beauty, new media - filters AO3: Women feel the need to buy these products to be 'beautiful' which creates profit for the big corporations - profiting off of women's insecurities

Answer 229

Media messages for teenage girls also suggest often concentrate on beauty & slimming. Orbach (1991) suggest that media creates anxieties in young people about their body image. She suggests they lead to eating disorders by constantly commenting on females looks, using size zero models, criticising over- weight celebs and advertising diets and surgery. Girl Guides (2020) – 39% of girls and young women reported feeling unhappy that they can’t look the way they do online. Example: Little representation of body types, models are considered high end and beautiful - skinny AO3: Marxism - similar to the WC and UC divide, unrealistic standards, advertising for diets and surgery

Answer 230

Tuchman (1978) used the term SYMBOLIC ANNIHILATION to describe the way in which women’s achievements are often not reported (omission), or are condemned or trivialized by the mass media. Often their achievements are presented as less important than their looks and sex appeal. Symbolic annihilation can be seen in the following:

Answer 231

Women hardly in news, coverage of women's sport, women and video games

Answer 232

AKAS (2020) found that although women make up half the population, they comprise 39% of journalists and just 26% of journalism leadership globally. In terms of media coverage, women were quoted voices in only 29% of online news stories analysed in the U.K. in 2019—and that was the highest percentage among the six countries included in the research. On high-profile topics such as the economy, men’s share of voices was up to 31 times higher than women’s. Women don't have a voice and even if they do, they are overpowered by the majority of mens voices

Answer 233

Research into the representations of female athletes has found that there is some evidence of the ‘male gaze’. Girl Guides (2020) A third (32%) of girls aged 7 to 21 are turned off sport by the way the media shows women athletes, including focus on how they look instead of their talents. More about how they look rather than talent, commentary is different. When Beth Mead scored and took her shirt off it was sexualised but it is classed ass an okay celebration for men Norwegian handball team received a fine for not wearing bikinis but men wear long shorts and baggy tank top

Answer 234

Girl Guides (2020) found that 81% of girls and young women aged between 7 to 21 play games online. A third (33%) of girls and young women aged 11 to 21 think gaming companies shouldn’t make games that are sexist or use gender stereotypes GTA - sexualises women Tomb raider - Lara Croft wears small shorts and crop tops. Video games are targeted to boys

Answer 235

Connell (2005) considers gender identities are in part constructed by the media reproducing hegemonic femininity and hegemonic masculinity. This refers to the norm and society’s expectations of what characteristics represent a ‘typical male’ or ‘typical female’.

Answer 236

- Overly masculine - Powerful - No emotions - Businessmen - Breadwinner

Answer 237

Collier (1992) notes that men's magazines usually contradict themselves in their view of masculinity. He notes they define success by work and salary. He suggests that they are symbolic of retributive masculinity – an attempt to reassert traditional masculine authority by celebrating male concerns in the content. As a by-product of promoting masculinity, they become misogynist.

Answer 238

A person who is hateful towards women because of their gender and enforces traditional, stereotypical gender roles. They are strongly prejudiced against women

Answer 239

McRobbie (1994) suggests that in a postmodern society there is much more flexibility in the representations of men and women in the media and that there is now a growing expectation that women and men should be treated equally. Gauntlett (2008) sees the media as presenting a wider range of gender identities beyond traditional gender stereotypes. Media representations of this new type of masculinity led to postmodern sociologists speculating that masculinity was responding to the growing economic independence and assertiveness of women. Mort (1988) argues that a rise in consumption of designer labels and beauty products for men reflect this change in attitudes and refers to this as the metrosexual man.

Answer 240

- Males are opening up about emotions, sympathy towards them - Men becoming more prominent in the food industry which used to be female dominated - Gordon Ramsay - Focus on male identity and cosmetics

Answer 241

- Females are featured in films and TV in more diverse and different roles, instead of just background - Women encouraged to join different educational institutions - STEM - The phrase 'girl power' - reinforcing value and worth - Innes - women a re being presented as powerful and tough

Answer 242

* Marxist feminists believe that the roots of the stereotypical images of men and women in the media are economic. * The male dominated media aim to attract the largest audience possible in order to make profit. * The content of women’s magazines is shaped by advertising and often promote ‘FALSE NEEDS’ around beauty, size, shape etc. It is estimated that the diet industry alone is worth $100 billion a year in the USA. * Women are no longer exploited by the media in relation to their mother/housewife roles, rather they are encouraged to spend to solve their anxieties about weight and ageing.

Answer 243

* Radical feminists feel strongly that the media reproduce patriarchy. They argue that traditional images are deliberately transmitted by male-dominated media to keep women oppressed into a narrow range of roles. * Radical feminists believe that the media dupe women into a FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS whereby they value the ‘beauty myth’ over competing with men for positions of power. * They argue that men’s magazines that encourage retributive masculinity are aimed at compensating for a ‘crisis of masculinity’ whereby men’s economic and social power has declined. * The way that these magazines relegate women to mere sex objects is evidence of a social backlash by males.

Answer 244

* Bauman argues that the media provide consumers with a greater degree of CHOICE with regards the social construction of their identity. * Gauntlett (2008) argues that the media today challenge traditional definitions of gender and are a force for change. * There has been a new emphasis on men’s emotions and problems as well as a ‘feistier’ representation of femininity portrayed by ‘girl power’ icons.

Answer 245

* Pluralists claim that critiques of the media representations found in modern media underestimate women’s ability to see through gender stereotyping and manipulation. * They believe that feminists are guilty of stereotyping females as impressionable and easily influenced. * They claim that there is no real evidence that girls and women take any notice of media content or that it profoundly affects their attitudes or behaviour. * Pluralists believe that the media simply reflect social attitudes and tastes and in doing so are meeting both men and women’s needs.

Answer 246

To ensure the CULTURAL HEGEMONY of the dominant capitalist class and to ensure that inequality and exploitation are not defined as social problems so that they do not become the focus of social debate and demand for social change. The dominant capitalist class are using hegemonic curtains to cover up t he divide and social problems for the RC to keep their power and prevent revolution

Answer 247

Overrepresented and positive, as critical thinkers, educated and experts and functioning families

Answer 248

The MC are overrepresented on TV programmes such as soaps, dramas etc. Many of their characters are seen positively.

Answer 249

A substantial amount of newspapers are aimed at the middle class such as the Telegraph, The independent, The times.

Answer 250

The most creative personnel in the media are themselves middle class. In the news the expert in the field the story is based on will also be middle class.

Answer 251

Middle class families and their consumption and tastes are presented in drama, sitcoms and adverts as the norm that all should aspire to imitate.

Answer 252

Those who are MC have disposable income to pay for things that may be unnecessary. RC usually would buy luxury items and WC don't have disposable income

Answer 253

Uncritical thinkers, dumb and stupid buffoons, source of trouble, living in idealised working-class communities

Answer 254

Curran and Seaton (2003) – Notes that newspapers aimed at the working class like The Sun and The Daily Star presume readers want to read about celebs, gossip and trivial human-interest stories, not current affairs and politics.

Answer 255

Butsch (2003) suggests that when working class are featured it’s very unflattering and worth pitying. They are seen as well-intentioned but uneducated individuals, who are irresponsible, immature and incompetent. E.g. Homer Simpson.

Answer 256

Newman suggests that when the news focuses on the working class this is to label them as a problem e.g. welfare cheats. They are often the subject of moral panics being blamed for societal issues

Answer 257

Jones (2011) Traditional working-class communities are often presented in a positive way – seen as hardworking who have overcome adversity e.g. EastEnders. This is a problem though because these communities have disappeared due to the decline of traditional industries.

Answer 258

Glasgow University Media Group (GUMG) – suggests some films representations have been more sympathetic portraying WC as dignified, supportive and able to challenge the social inequality and racial intolerance eg “I Daniel Blake” and “A Street Cat named Bob”

Answer 259

Dangerous, deserving of abuse and entertaining

Answer 260

Lawler (2005) The media use the word “chav” to describe the underclass, symbolised by a tracksuit and bling. This then shows the underclass as a dangerous class who are criminal and happy to live off benefits.

Answer 261

Tyler (2008) suggests the word ‘chav’ has now become a common form of middle-class abuse of the white working class.

Answer 262

McKendrick et al (2008) media coverage of poverty is marginal, and the causes are not explored across the news. Shameless gives a sanitised picture of poverty and Jeremy Kyle treats poverty as entertainment Poverty Porn Programmes such as benefit street have been accused of being poverty porn.

Answer 263

Cohen (2009). He argues that journalists, actors, artists and entertainers are hopeless at giving a realistic representation of the plight of the poor. The media reinforce the idea that they are poor due to their own failures. Jones (2011) argues media gives the impression that ‘we are all middle class now’ – and working class and the underclass are presented as abnormal, deviant and figures of fun.

Answer 264

Eastern europeans - Bad guys in films Irish - violent

Answer 265

The white gaze. Newsworthy victim - white, female, young. Symbolic annihilation leads to a lack of victimhood for EMG

Answer 266

- Kidnapped, raped and murdered by police officer, pretended to arrest her - Media uproar - politicians released statements - laws on women considered newsworthy - Ideal victim

Answer 267

- Strangled, beaten, found in park by Albanian immigrant - Not covered in news, only got picked up by a BAME journalist - Different skin colour

Answer 268

Akinti (2003): argues TV coverage of ethnically diverse groups focuses on crime, AIDS in Africa and black underachievement. Whilst ignoring culture & interests of a huge diverse audience and diverse interests. Any news is usually bad news and “seen through the eye of a white person”; the same as the “male gaze”. In recent years, this has also led to, what Nittle (2021) calls, cultural appropriation. Cultural appropriation involves adopting certain elements from another culture without the consent of people who belong to that culture. For example, Miley Cyrus was accused of cultural appropriation when she was twerking at the 2013 VMAs and Kim Kardashian was also accused of it when wearing Fulani braids.

Answer 269

Gill (2007) argues that there is a narrow range of black women in the media.

Answer 270

Ethnic minorities as criminals, as moral panics, as a threat, as abnormal, as unimportant, as dependent and as invisible

Answer 271

Crime and violence is the most frequent issue found in media coverage of ethnic minorities. Van Dijk believes that the tabloid press frequently associated black people with crime and in recent years with membership of organised gangs that push drugs and violently defend urban territories.

Answer 272

Watson (2008) notes that moral panics often result from media stereotyping of Black people as potentially criminal. A classic example of this was seen in the late 70s/early 80s when ‘muggings’ by black people were ‘sensationalised’ by the media. In recent years, new stereotypes have emerged that have been applied to white people from Eastern Europe and countries close to Russia. e.g., populations from the following countries: Ukraine, Poland, Latvians, Bulgarian, Romanians, Lithuanians and Slovakians. These groups have been blamed for a number of recent problems that beset Britain and are blamed for things that are not true or are not their fault. The work of Dowling (2007) supports the findings of Van Dijk, but argues that the shift has also shifted onto Eastern European immigrants; from the year 2000 onwards. Eastern European Migrants were being attacked and blamed in the media for: * Being benefit scroungers and lone parents * Stealing unwanted clothes * Taking British jobs * Drunken driving * Car crashes * Groping women * Overcrowding churches etc. These stories were absurd, untrue or over exaggerated, but they did have a negative influence on some audiences; creating, confirming and reinforcing racial stereotypes by blaming minority ethnic groups for problems that were not created by them at all.

Answer 273

Hall conducted a study in the 1970s, looking at the moral panic that portrayed black men as muggers. This led to the labelling of all black people as more prone to criminality than white people. Divide and Rule: Moral panics serve ideological functions by turning white people against black people and keeping black people working class. Leads to repressive laws: This led to an increase in demand for police in black communities. Acts as a hegemonic curtain and leads to repressive laws

Answer 274

Van Dijk’s (1991) content analysis suggested that a common news stereotype was the idea that ethnic minorities are posing a threat to the majority White culture. The concept of ‘threat’ is central to both news values and moral panics. In recent years, three groups seem to constitute the greatest threat in the UK, according to newspapers and TV. Moral panics have, therefore, been constructed around: * Immigrants: Because of numbers that enter the country and impact on the job market * Refugees and asylum seekers: Seen as a drain on welfare state and economy * Muslims: 9/11 led to Islamophobia, this increased with the stabbing of Lee Rigby Islamophobia and the Media: ‘Muslim’ as a Stigmatised Identity Since the Twin Towers terrorist attack (2001), the London bombings (2005) and the participation of a tiny minority of Muslim youth who have participated in Islamic State terrorist activities, Muslims have been stereotyped in the British media as a threat to social values and public safety. Goffman (1963 +1990)- ‘Stigmatised Identity’ Goffman argues that the very word ‘Muslim’ has become a ‘stigmatised Identity’: An identity that is some way seen as abnormal, undesirable or demeaning and which excludes people from full acceptance in society. Goffman argues that this has contributed to Islamophobia (an irrational fear or hatred of Muslims) in the white majority population). This led Baroness Warsi, the first ever female Muslim Cabinet Minister in 2011 to coin the phrase ‘Fashionable Islamophobia’. She argued that anti-Muslim prejudice was even now accepted amongst the middle classes, whereby the Muslim population has now been talked about in a prejudiced, bigoted way. (AO3: Although it can be argued that more representation of ethnic minorities in cabinet and parliament show a change in audience / public thinking). Cottle (2000) argues that media representation of ethnicity encourages media audiences to construct a sense of their identity by defining who ‘we are’ in relation to who ‘we are not’, in terms of’ us’ and ‘them.’ This means that the white majority relate to who they are in relation to the difference of others. Nahdi (2003) argues that the way that newsgathering is now based on short ‘snippets’ has actually legitimized the voice of extremist Islam. These fringe groups (such as Islam 4 UK) are given a disproportionate amount of coverage even though they only represent a small minority of the Muslim population and are unacceptable to most Muslims. This coverage often destroys trust amongst Muslim readerships and audiences.

Answer 275

Sections of the British media may be guilty of creating false cultural stereotypes around the value systems and norms of other cultures. A survey by the BBC in 2002 found that Asian audiences were unhappy at the way that the media failed to differentiate between different Asian groups, which have very distinctive cultures. For example, arranged marriage was often confused with ‘forced’ marriage which was disapproved of in most Asian communities. Ameli (2007) argues the media describe the hijab as oppressive to Muslim women and inferior to western dress, yet many Muslim women feel liberated by the fact they are able to remain dignified and covered up.

Answer 276

Van Dijk (1991) Some sections of the media implies that white people are more important that the non- white. News about disasters in other countries where population is non-white will be kept to a few words. A story of one White British person dying will be prioritised over the suffering of 1000s. When a Black person is a victim of crime, the reporting is kept to a minimum. No coverage of Israel and Palestine in main media George Floyd only received attention through new media

Answer 277

The GMG (2000) found that stories about less developed countries tend to focus on ‘coup-war-famine-starvation syndrome’. The implication of such stories, both in newspapers and on TV, is that the problems of developing countries are the result of stupidity, tribal conflict, too many babies, laziness, corruption and unstable political regimes. Such countries are portrayed as ‘depending’ on the West for aid with Comic Relief and Live Aid being viewed as the only way they can survive calamities and disasters.

Answer 278

Limited Roles both on and off screen * In popular drama, the perception of ethic-minority audiences is that when actors from ethnic minority audiences appear, the range of roles they play is very limited and often reflects low status. * Examples include Africans playing cleaners and Asians playing shopkeepers. * Dramas fail to truly represent the range of jobs that ethnic minorities have, e.g. successful businesspeople or media professionals. * At the time of writing, out of 150 Love Island contestants, only 2 of them have been from South Asian backgrounds. Cultural Irrelevance * Research carried out by the Open University found that UK ethnic minority communities do not relate to much of the nation’s TV culture and do not identify with TV programmes that have strong White, middle-England associations. * Rather than finding that ethnic minorities failed to integrate with the national culture, the research found that aspects of the national film and TV culture offer little space for ethnic minority interests or identities. Tokenism * Ethnic minority audiences are hostile towards TOKENISM, where TV programmes, such as soap operas, include characters from ethnic minority groups purely because they ‘should’. * Such tokenism is often the result of positive discrimination or equal opportunities practices by TV companies such as the BBC. * For example, a Black character will pop up incongruously in a drama like Emmerdale, despite the fact that the racial profile of the Yorkshire Dale. Ghettoization * Critics have suggested that TV programmes dedicated to minority issues effectively GHETTOIZE such issues by scheduling them at times or on channels that ensure small audiences. This has two effects: * 1) White audiences are unlikely to watch such content and may remain ignorant of ethnic minority culture * 2) The mainstream media assumes that minority issues are being dealt with by minority programming, so mainstream news and documentaries may be less likely to report them.

Answer 279

Media stereotypes of black and other ethnic minority groups do seem to be changing. Appreciation and greater media policy commitment to ethnic minority populations, has led to an increase in more channels serving EMG communities as well as EMG portrayals in mainstream media. Abercrombie (1996) stated that there are now more Black and Asian actors in popular dramas and soaps; they are portrayed as appearing as routine characters in normal everyday storylines.

Answer 280

Batchelor (2004) found that being gay was not generally integrated into mainstream media representations. Rather, when it did appear, e.g. in television drama, it was represented mainly as a source of anxiety or embarrassment, or it was seen as a target for teasing and bullying.

Answer 281

Gross (1991) – Symbolic annihilation: the media rarely portray gay and lesbian characters and if they do they are often very stereotypical.

Answer 282

Green (2007) found that gay people were 5 times more likely to be portrayed negatively and gay life more likely to appear in entertainment programmes than factual programmes like the news. When gay characters do appear they are usually cast in terms of their sexual orientation rather than just being characters who are gay.

Answer 283

Camp, deviant, AIDS

Answer 284

One of the most widely used representations. Shows trivial characters, often theatrical and over the top. This reinforces the idea that gay sexuality is a hybrid of male and female characteristics. Example: Alan Carr, Eric - Sex education, Drag queens - ru paul AO3: Can be seen as negative because it reinforces stereotypes, but creates a place for gay people to be themselves, may be relatable

Answer 285

Gay men have been shown as evil or devious in TV dramas and have been shown feeling guilty about their sexuality. Example: Heartstopper - heterosexual boy feels guilty for realising he's gay, embarrassing AO3: creates negativity about being gay, makes people think it is wrong

Answer 286

Critics argue that the news ignores and distorts the lives led by homosexual people. Homosexuality is often presented as unnatural and the media have printed homophobic comments. Links have often been made to homosexual men and the spread of AIDS. Example: AIDS crisis - demonised gay people even through the disease is not transmitted because you're gay. It is infected bodily fluids. Infomercials about the crisis AO3: Created a long standing stigma around gay people making them seem dirty

Answer 287

Gauntlett (2008) argues that things are slowly changing. There is evidence of some change in representations of gay sexuality like camp, butch, lesbian. Media companies are also aware that the gay and lesbian consumer market – the “Pink Pound” is large and affluent.

Answer 288

Gill (2007) suggests that to avoid offending heterosexual audiences, the media present homosexuality in a sanitised way. Presented in a way that heterosexual people who grew up with it being a bad thing. Homosexual men are often represented as stylish and attractive, with content designed to appeal to women not to other gay men. Lesbians on the other hand rarely appear and when they do it is for the oldest heterosexual male fantasy. Such representations have the triple effect: * Appealing to the gay and lesbian market * Not offending heterosexual media audiences * Not challenging heterosexual ideology The media have started to challenge traditional stereotypes of homosexuality but have been criticised for not reflecting bisexuality, asexuality, pansexuality (gender blind) etc.

Answer 289

In contemporary Britain, the dominant view of ‘normal sexuality’ is that of heterosexuality, which is a central aspect of both hegemonic masculine and feminine stereotypes. Traditionally women have been defined largely by their physical attractiveness and sexual appeal to men. They have traditionally been seen as sex objects, subjected to the ‘male gaze’, particularly in the mass media and advertising. The increasing sexualisation of men: Men are becoming sexualised objects – there are now more magazines aimed at how they look, what they eat etc. McRobbie (1994) argued that the beauty stakes have gone up for men, as women have become active viewers. Men's bodies have become a tool of advertising and there is growing media interest in men's bodies. Particularly “moobs”! The sun even published a hall of shame. However, women are still more likely to be viewed as sexual objects through pornography etc.

Answer 290

1) The first suggests that people with disabilities are disabled by their physical and/or mental impairments, therefore suggesting that they need constant care from both medical practitioners and their families. 2) The second view, held by many, including sociologists with disabilities, suggests that people with disabilities are actually disabled by society, particularly the fact that social institutions, facilities and services are primarily designed with people without disabilities in mind. They are also disabled by prejudicial stereotypes and attitudes resulting in discriminatory practices that reinforce the idea that disabled people should be dependent on people without disabilities and should be segregated from the rest of society. Shakespeare (1999) argues that disability should be seen as a social construction, i.e. a problem created by the attitudes of society and not by the state of our bodies. He argues that society does not take into account the needs of those who do not meet the standard as to what is considered ‘normal’. This creates a ‘disabled identity’ amongst the able bodied and stereotypical and free from impairment population. The very nature of society constructing society in a way that ignores disability creates disability as a ‘problem’. Shakespeare goes on to argue that the media use the disability as character trait or as part of a plot. He argues that this is a ‘lazy shortcut’ to provide ‘hooks’ to get people engaged.

Answer 291

The achievements of people with disabilities are often trivialised not reported or condemned by the media – symbolic annihilation. They are also underrepresented in a whole range of media content. * Those who control the media are predominantly white, male, middle class and able bodied, so media representations reflect that. The ‘Media Gaze’ nearly always represents disability as a problem for society.

Answer 292

He claims this stereotype has risen in recent years because of appeals like children in need, drama & news which focus on miracle cures. Example - Isaac sex education, August - Wonder

Answer 293

They are portrayed as criminals or monsters – villains in James Bond usually have some sort of physical disability. The Joker

Answer 294

Barnes notes that individuals with disabilities may be seen as having super powers. Paralympics, presenters, activists

Answer 295

People with disabilities may be laughed at in comedies. Disabled comedians

Answer 296

Bryant et al (2011) & GUMG (2014) In the GUMG study found that when comparing 5 newspapers from 2004-5 to 2010-11 the proportion of articles that were sympathetic to people with disabilities had reduced and the proportion of articles that linked to benefit fraud had doubled. Common references were made, such as ‘scrounger’, cheat’ and skiver’.

Answer 297

Research by Ross (2003) & Sancho (2003) indicates that both viewers with disabilities and those without object to and are critical of the way people with disabilities are portrayed in the media. Children especially were irritated by portrayals of miraculous cures and a lack of reality e.g. not seeing people with disabilities working or getting upstairs.

Answer 298

Time to change Philo/GUMG (1999) found that television and press reporting of people suffering mental disabilities often focuses on violent incidents despite the fact that only a tiny minority of people with mental health impairments are potentially violent. ‘Time to Change’ and GMG content analysis study (2014) found that TV soaps and dramas were moving away from the ‘Mad and Bad’ stereotypes of mental illness that Philo had found in 2010. Roper suggests that the mass media representations on telethons such as Children in Need, of overly cute children do not represent people with disabilities in the UK. They imply charities, not the government, should provide for people with disabilities. She argues this media representation creates a perception of a “begging” culture. They encourage members of the public to alleviate their guilt of not being disabled by giving some money.