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IGCSE Psychology > Criminal Psychology Whole Unit > Flashcards

Criminal Psychology Whole Unit Flashcards

1
Q

Understanding learning theories as an explanation of criminality

A
  1. Learning theories explain behaviour as a result of the experiences that we have
  2. These theories suggest that criminal behaviour can be explained as a result of learning, like any other behaviour we display
  3. e.g. if we can learn to behave well in school because we see older peers behaving well or we are rewarded for good behaviour
  4. Similarly, criminal behaviour can be a result of being rewarded or we can come from modelling the criminal behaviour we see in others
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2
Q

Operant conditioning as an explanation of criminality

A
  1. Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1948) developed a theory of learning called operant conditioning
  2. He believed that behaviours we display are likely to be repeated if they are reinforced or extinguished and not repeated again if we are punished.
  3. Operant conditioning explains that there are two types of reinforcement - positive and negative. This is the consequences of which encourage us to repeat a behaviour we have displaced
  4. In operant conditioning there is reinforcement (which achieves desired behaviour) and punishment (which achieves desired behaviour)
  5. Reinforcements work well when given when the behaviour has been displaced
  6. Operant conditioning also explains that punishment is a consequence of behaviour, which means we are less likely to repeat behaviour again
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3
Q

Positive reinforcement in terms of criminal behaviour

A
  1. We receive a pleasurable or rewarding consequence for our behaviour
  2. We are then likely to repeat the behaviour to get something nice again
  3. In terms of criminal behaviour, if someone receives praise from their family for fighting or for vandalism, or financial reward from committing fraud, then they are likely to commit the crime again
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4
Q

Negative reinforcement in terms of criminal behaviour

A
  1. When a behaviour we display is strengthened by the avoidance of an aversive or unpleasant experience
  2. We are likely to repeat a behaviour that gets rid of something unpleasant
  3. In terms of criminal behaviour, if someone is able to stop a bully by punching them, it is likely that they will use their fists to solve problems in the future.
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5
Q

Positive punishment in terms of criminal behaviour

A
  1. Receiving negative consequence for a behaviour, such as a child being told off by a parent for not keeping their bedroom tidy
  2. This is often the way that we treat criminal behaviour
  3. If someone does a criminal act and is fined or imprisoned, they are being positively punished
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6
Q

Negative punishment on terms of criminal behaviour

A
  1. Taking away something pleasant as a consequence of a behaviour that is not desired
  2. e.g. if a child is disruptive at a birthday party, which they are really enjoying, a parent can remove them from the party to sit in the corner
  3. In terms of criminal behaviour a person may enjoy being part of a gang
  4. The gang may start to vandalise public property but because the person does not want to join in, they are told to leave the gang
  5. The undesired behaviour of not vandalising property is punished
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7
Q

Operant conditioning in prison

A
  1. The state uses both positive punishment and negative reinforcement
  2. e.g. if someone commits fraud and is put into prison, they are receiving positive punishment for their actions
  3. When they are released from prison, they should avoid committing fraud because they do not want to be imprisoned again: this would be negative reinforcement
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8
Q

Types of positive reinforcement

A
  1. Operant conditioning explains that there are two types of positive reinforcers that can be used as a consequence for behaviour to strengthen behaviour
  2. Primary and secondary reinforcers
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9
Q

Primary reinforcers

A
  1. These satisfy a basic biological need, such as food and water
  2. e.g. A parent may reward the child with food treats for behaving well
  3. Although it is unlikely that most criminals commit crime for primary reinforcers, people who are in extreme poverty or are starving may resort to committing a crime, such as theft, in order to satisfy a basic need.
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10
Q

Secondary reinforcers

A
  1. There are common reinforcers, such as school, grades, and tokens
  2. These reinforcers often have no survival value, but we have learned to associate them with a primary reinforcer
  3. e.g. a credit card
  4. The card itself has no intrinsic value but it can be used to buy goods which are rewarding or satisfy a basic need such as food and warmth.
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11
Q

Strengths of operant conditioning in terms of criminal behaviour

A
  1. A strength of operant conditioning is that the theory can be used to explain a wide range of crimes. For e.g. it explains theft and how social approval can be a strong reinforcer in peer groups that encourage deviant behaviour through positive reinforcement. It can also explain murders such that a man may find out that his friend is stealing from him, he attacks him, and the friend dies. This is negative reinforcement as it removes the aversive situation
  2. Operant conditioning also explains that punishment can remove an undesirable behaviour. The is used in our criminal justice system - offenders are punished through the removal of their civil liberties.
  3. It has also contributed to the development of behaviour management techniques such as token economies. These systems reward good behaviour in prison with tokens that prisoners can exchange for goods or treats.
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12
Q

Weaknesses of operant conditioning in terms of criminal behaviour

A
  1. A weakness of the operant conditioning explanation is that not all crimes are committed because of receiving reinforcement or punishment; it is often more complicated than that.
  2. It neglects other factors that can cause criminal behaviour such as the type of personality or genetics
  3. The behaviour can be reproduced in the absence of reinforcement or punishment. A big part of whether someone chooses to commit a criminal act can be due to the way they think or a different form of motivation than reward. if an employee feels as though they are not valued in their job, they may choose to steal stationary to get back at their employer.
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13
Q

Social learning theory

A
  1. Social learning theory is a social theory because it explains that we learn from one another, rather than directly from reinforcement or punishment
  2. Albert Bandura (1977) explains behaviour as a consequence of observing and modelling others around us
  3. This is known as observational learning
  4. We do not just copy anyone, we are motivated to copy those with whom we share similar characteristics. This person becomes a role model.
  5. From observing a role model, we can learn how to new behaviours are performed, this is known as modelling
  6. This may or may not lead to a change in behaviour
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14
Q

Modelling

A

Learning new behaviour through paying attention to, retaining and reproducing the behaviour of a role model

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15
Q

Observational learning

A

learning new behaviours through watching and modelling a role model

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16
Q

Role model

A

a person who we admire or with whom we share similar characteristics.

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17
Q

The identification and modelling process

A
  1. Attention
  2. Retention
  3. Reproduction
  4. Motivation
  5. Identification
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18
Q

Social learning theory as an explanation of criminality

A
  1. if a person is exposed to criminality, such as a child living in a violent household, then they are more likely to pay attention and retain this.
  2. Parents and television characters can be strong role models
  3. If a child is exposed to criminality they are ore likely to model the behaviour, particularly if the role model appears to be rewarded for their activities
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19
Q

Attention

A

in order to learn something new, you must be able to, and want to pay attention to it

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20
Q

Retention

A
  1. for learning to take place, you must be able to store or retain the new behaviour in your memory
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21
Q

reproduction

A
  1. to be able to model the new behaviour that you observed, you need to be able to reproduce it
  2. So you may watch a gymnast do a backflip, and you could have paid attention and retained the way in which the move was performed, but you will not be able to reproduce it without agility and practice
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22
Q

Motivation

A
  1. you are more likely to model a behaviour you have observed someone do if you are motivated to reproduce it
  2. This motivation can be intrinsic, in that you gain pleasure from copying it.
  3. It could also be that you see the role model receiving a reward for this behaviour os you copy it in order to receive the same reward.
  4. This is known as vicarious reinforcement
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23
Q

Identification

A
  1. identification occurs when you adopt behaviour, beliefs and values of the role model or group
  2. temporarily adopting the behaviour of a role model of group
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24
Q

Vicarious reinforcement

A

motivation to model the behaviours of other who we see being rewarded for their behaviour

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25
Q

strengths of social learning in terms of criminal behaviour

A
  1. There is a lot of evidence to support the social learning of aggressive behaviour. Bandura (1960s) conducted a series of experiments that exposed nursery-aged children to an aggressive role model. He found that aggression was copied, especially if the role model was the same sex as the child and if the role model was rewarded for their aggression
  2. Observational learning is one of the main ways that children learn new behaviour and can explain this behaviour in the absence of reinforcement. Some behaviour does not become learned through consequences
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26
Q

weaknesses of social learning in terms of criminal behaviour

A
  1. Although experimental evidence, such as the studies conducted by Bandura, shows how children learn aggressive behaviour from a role model, such studies can only measure the short-term effect. We cannot ethically test whether exposure to aggression can have long-term effects. Meaning that the theory cannot be tested in real-life situations
  2. Some criminal behaviour cannot be explained by observation learning. For e.g. murder is rarely witnessed in real life. It cannot explain opportunistic crime that has not been observed by the criminal. Similarly fraud is unlikely learning through observation as it is typically driver by financial gain.
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27
Q

Biological explanations of criminality

A
  1. Biological explanations of criminality do not take learning experiences into account
  2. instead, they explain criminality as a result of our biological systems, such as our brain and nervous system, genes and hormones
  3. Biological explanations have been used to explain criminality throughout the history of psychology
  4. Early theorists believed that criminals had certain body types and facial characteristics that indicated whether they were criminal and what type of crime they would be likely to commit.
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28
Q

Genetic explanations for criminality

A
  1. Studies have found that criminality runs in families
  2. However, such evidence is undermined by the possibility that upbringing might account for these finds or that a social factor, such as poverty, may explain the tendency for criminality to run in families
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29
Q

Twin studies for criminality

A
  1. If monozygotic twins are both more likely to be criminals compared to dizygotic twins then there could be some evidence that criminality has a genetic basis
  2. Karl Christiansen (1977) found that 35% of identical male twins recorded in Denmark were both criminals compared to 13% of non-identical male twins
  3. For female twins, the figures were 21% of identical twins and 8% of non-identical twins
  4. However, identical twins are likely to be raised in a more similar way than non-identical twins (especially if they are a different sex)
  5. This shared upbringing could explain the slightly higher percentage of identical twins who are both criminals compared to non-identical twins.
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30
Q

Adoption studies for criminality

A
  1. One way to rule out the potential influence of upbringing is to use evidence from adoption studies
  2. Here, the biological and adoptive parents are compared to the child in terms of whether they have criminal records
  3. Assuming that the child has been adopted at an early age, we can then assume that any similarity between the biological parent and child is inherited
  4. Barry Hutchings and Sarnoff Mednick (1975) found that 21% of adopted children who went on to commit a crime had a biological father who was convicted of a crime
  5. This was compared to 10% of children whose biological father was not convicted of a criminal offence but the adoptive father had a criminal record
  6. However we should be wary of interpreting this as a biological basis for criminality because it could be some other tendency or attribute that has been inherited, which may explain why some adopted children turn to crime.
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31
Q

Personality Theory

A
  1. Our personality is the set of characteristics that determine what we are like
  2. Characteristics and qualities that make up someone’s individual character
  3. Some personality theories believe that our personality is a temperament, which has a biological basis
  4. These theories can explain how some personalities are associated with being a criminal, while others are not
  5. They suggest that a criminal personality trait is caused by internal, biological factors
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32
Q

Hans Eysenck

A
  1. Developed a personality theory and studied different personality traits and suggested that certain characteristic could be more prone to criminality
  2. 1964
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33
Q

Eysenck’s personality traits

A
  1. extraversion/introversion
  2. Neuroticism
  3. psychoticism
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34
Q

extraversion/introversion

A
  1. two extreme ends of one dimension of personality
  2. extraversion is being outgoing and sociable and is at one end of the dimension
  3. On the other end is introversion which is being reserved and quiet
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35
Q

neuroticism

A
  1. this refers to the nervous disposition of someone
  2. If they are stable, then they are calm and do not over-react in situations
  3. If they are unstable they tend to be highly emotional and quick to over-react
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36
Q

psychoticism

A
  1. this is a personality trait that shows a lack of empathy towards others
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37
Q

Measuring personality

A
  1. Each personality trait can be measured using a questionnaire devised by Eysenck.
  2. Its called the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)
  3. Each question in the EPQ measures the specific trains of extraversion/introversion (E), neuroticism : Stable/unstable (N), and psychoticism (P) which gives them a PEN score
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38
Q

The biological basis of personality in criminal psychology

A
  1. People with a high E score on the EPQ are believed to have a nervous system that has a low arousal level, so they seek external stimulation to raise their biological arousal level
  2. They do this by being outgoing and sensation-seeking.
  3. People with low E scores are believed to have a nervous system characterised by high arousal, so they avoid thrill and excitement in order to dampen their biological arousal level
  4. Unstable neurotics have a high N score and are believed to have a nervous system that responds very quickly under stressful conditions; they tend to over-react quickly
  5. In contrast, people with low N scores have an unreactive nervous sytem, meaning they are calm under stressful conditions
  6. Although Eysenck was less clear about the biological basis for psychoticism, he believed it was also linked to our biological make-up
  7. Having a high P score means that a person is cold, lacks compassion, and can be antisocial
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39
Q

Monozygotic twins

A
  1. twins developed from one fertilised egg that has split into two
  2. genetically identical twins
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40
Q

Dizygotic

A
  1. twins developed from two different eggs fertilised during the same pregnancy
  2. dizygotic twins are not genetically identical
41
Q

Temperament

A

the nature someone is born with, which affects their behaviour

42
Q

Extraversion

A

behaviour that is outgoing, sensation-seeking, and sociable

43
Q

Introversion

A

behaviour that is reserved, calm, and quiet

44
Q

Unstable neuroticism

A

a personality trait associated with being over-reactive in stressful situations, over-emotional, and anxious

45
Q

Stable neuroticism

A

a personality trait associated with being unreactive in stressful situations and emotionally unaffected

46
Q

Psychoticism

A

a personality trait that is cold, lacks empathy, is antisocial, and can be aggressive

47
Q

EPQ

A
  1. Eysenck’s personality questionnaire

2. a questionnaire to measure extraversion, introversion, stable and unstable neuroticism, and psychoticism

48
Q

The criminal personality

A
  1. Most people have moderate PEN scores
  2. This means that they score moderately on psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism
  3. High PEN scores are relatively uncommon and have been used to explain criminality
  4. However this theory is not completely about our biological make-up. It also explains how the PEN personality traits interact with how we are raised
  5. This is called the process of socialisation. As we grow up, we are punished for antisocial behaviour so we learn to associate misbehaving with the anxiety of being punished
  6. The theory also explains that people with a high PEN So have a biological nervous sytem that is more difficult to socialise because they do not associate their antisocial behaviour with the anxiety of being punished.
  7. These personalities are quick to react, sensation-seeking, and lack empathy for others so antisocial behaviour is exciting for them because they do not consider other people’s feelings. So punishing them is not effective
49
Q

Socialisation

A

the way you are raised and taught how to behave

50
Q

Holism

A

the theory of explaining something as a whole

51
Q

Sociologist

A

a type of researcher interested in the effects of social conditions on behaviour and societies

52
Q

Strengths of Eysenck’s theory

A
  1. There is evidence that people with these personality traits are associated with criminal behaviour. If we compare the PEN scores of convected criminals to non-criminals, criminals have a higher PEN score. David Farrington et al. (1982) found that there was a relationship between high P and N scores and criminal behaviour but none between high E scores and criminality. This provides some support for the theory
  2. It combines biological (genetics), psychological (traits), and social (upbringing) factors into one theory making it more holistic as it integrates all levels of explanation
53
Q

Weaknesses of Eysenck’s theory

A
  1. It tends to assume that personality traits are fixed and stable and unchanging through out life. However it is possible that we change our behaviour according to the situation we are in. Criminality can therefore be considered to be more about environmental conditions than personality traits. Sociologists would agree that social conditions such as poverty are more likely to cause criminal behaviour than the type of nervous system we possess
  2. Much of the evidence used is based on self-report questionnaires which can be flawed because people can be bias in answering them. Hence the data can be unreliable
  3. The evidence that comes from offenders only represents offenders who have been caught and convicted, not the successful ones.
54
Q

Understanding the effects of punishment on recidivism

A
  1. An offender who has been caught and punished for crime and then goes on to commit another offence are being released is known as a recidivist
  2. Recidivism has been linked to the way in which offenders are punished for their crimes
  3. In particular, whether or not their punishment encourages recidivism or if it is in some way rehabilitative, so is likely to decrease rates of recidivism
55
Q

Recidivism

A

when an offender is punished for their crime but commits another crime when released

56
Q

Rehabilitative

A

a programme designed to help offenders rather than punish them

57
Q

Prison (recidivism)

A
  1. Offenders can be punished for their crimes in various ways
  2. A typical sentence for a serious criminal act is imprisonment.
  3. This is when an offender is placed in a prison and denied civil liberties, such as freedom and privileges, for a period of time determined by the court.
  4. The period of detention (or custody) is usually dictated by the type of crime committed, for which a sentence is received. The more serious the crime is, the longer the period of custodial sentence
58
Q

Punishment in prison

A
  1. Punishment can be said to be effective because it is based on the principles of operant conditioning, which demonstrates that positive punishment can be used to stop a behaviour occurring again
  2. Prison is a form of positive punishment given to an offender that should prevent them from reoffending
  3. Prison also acts as a deterrent for potential offenders so is a form of negative reinforcement : people will avoid prison by abiding by the law
  4. However, some people may commit a crime in order to be put into prison because they find stability, routine, and friendship there.
  5. Prison could be a positive reinforcement for these peoples
59
Q

Strengths of prison as a deterrent to reoffending

A
  1. Prison can be said to be effective because it removes a criminal from public life, so they do not have the opportunity to commit a crime as they are highly regulated within the prison walls. However it does not totally prevent reoffending after the sentence has been served. Recidivism rates in the UK show that within the first year of release, around 25% of people reoffend. The figures differ between age groups and for different types of crime.
  2. It keeps the public safe as the offender is locked away. This can be reassuring for the public and reinforces the moral view that crimes will be punished to ensure civil order. It is also based on the learning theory of operant conditioning which predicts that behaviour that is punished will not be repeated.
60
Q

Weaknesses of prison as a deterrent to reoffending

A
  1. Imprisonment may be seen as an ineffective form of punishment for crime because prisoners are exposed to criminal role models while serving their sentence. These role models may commit crimes within prison and may reward other inmates for breaking prison rules. The reinforcement for committing crime within prison may outweigh the punishment that prison serves for crime.
  2. Once released, prisoners often find it difficult to get a job because of their criminal record, so they may likely turn back to crime to financially support myself making prison ineffective
  3. Prison raises ethical issues because civil liberties are removed from prisoners. This is a moral issue; some people believe that it is immoral to love someone up and remove their basic rights and privileges. Humanitarian views would argue that rehabilitation is better than imprisonment.
  4. Young offenders and criminals who commit crimes of theft are more likely to reoffend. With such high recidivism rates, we must question whether prison is an effective form of punishment
61
Q

Humanitarian

A

concern with the welfare of humans

62
Q

Community sentencing

A
  1. a community sentence is when you are convicted of a crime and have to do community service rather than go to prison.
  2. community sentencing is more common for minor offences, first offences, or if a court does not think a custodial sentence is appropriate
  3. Community service can involve voluntary work or unpaid work in the community such as painting buildings or picking up litter
  4. In addition to community service, an offender may be given a curfew, be restricted from certain areas, and have to report to a community offender manager.
  5. If an offender does not meet the requirements of the community service order, they may have to serve a custodial sentence in prison.
63
Q

Strengths of community sentencing as a way to reduce reoffending

A
  1. Offenders can be given a second chance to make up for their crime by giving something back to their community.
  2. It can also prevent a new offender going to prison, where they may make criminal connections and get involved with more serious crimes. The theory is that they will be less likely to reoffend if they are not exposed to criminal influences
  3. Since community sentences are only given in appropriate circumstances, they may be more suitable punishments than imprisonment and result in the offender being less likely to reoffend because they have avoided prison, which is negative reinforcement
64
Q

Weaknesses of community sentencing as a way to reduce reoffending

A
  1. Some view community sentencing as a soft option. With a recidivism rate of over 30%, it is not seen as an effective form of punishment.
  2. Despite curfews and restrictions, an offender may still be able to engage in criminal activity as they are not locked away from society
  3. Over 10% of offenders fail to complete their community sentence. This may be because they break curfew, fail to show up for community service, or are convicted for further offences
65
Q

Restorative justice

A
  1. Restorative justice is a practice that involves an offender meeting up or communicating with the victim or people they have harmed by their crime
  2. This could mean a burglar would meet residents from whom they have stolen
  3. This can help both the offender and people harmed by the crime as the offender realises that their actions have a negative effect and can take responsibility and those harmed may have a chance to let their offender know how they feel
  4. Clearly, this process can cause distress to both an offender and the person harmed by a crime so it is conducted in an informal and neutral environment where the people involved can feel safe.
  5. Restorative justice could also include victims being involved in the decisions about the type of penalty used and deciding how a person is going to be punished
66
Q

Strengths of restorative justice as a way to reduce reoffending

A
  1. According to government research, restorative justice has a high victim satisfaction rate of around 85%. This means that victims are able to ask questions and communicate their point of view to an offender, which may make them feel empowered and more able to move on with their lives. However it does not take away the fact that they have been a victim which shows that restorative justice may be more beneficial for the victim rather than a way of reducing recidivism
  2. There is a 14% reduction in recidivism compared to not using restorative justice. However since they are doing this voluntarily, it may just mean that the offender was already contemplating a crime-less life
67
Q

Weaknesses of restorative justice as a way to reduce reoffending

A
  1. The process of restorative justice can cause distress to both offender and victim as it involves personal contact. A mediator is needed to decide whether the process will be helpful and safe. This safe environment means that tan offender can contemplate their crimes and may lead to a reduction in reoffending
  2. The process of mediation can be time-consuming and costly. However a recent review by the Ministry of Justice found that the cost in using restorative justice is less than the cost involved in dealing with reoffending.
68
Q

Treatments to rehabilitate and reduce criminal and antisocial behaviour and increase prosocial behaviour

A
  1. Offenders who serve time in prison or carry out a community sentence may also receive treatments designed to rehabilitate them, reduce their antisocial behaviour and/or encourage prosocial behaviour
69
Q

Token economy programmes

A
  1. Token economy programmes are designed to reduce antisocial behaviour and increase prosocial behaviour within a prison
  2. Token economy programmes are based on the principles of operant conditioning, as prisoners are given tokens for prosocial behaviour as a form of reward/reinforcement
  3. Tokens are secondary reinforcers. Once a prisoner has collected a certain amount, they can exchange them for rewards such as visits, food privileges, and television time
  4. For a token economy system to work, the rewards must be genuinely valued by the prisoner and the tokens should be given as soon as a prosocial behaviour has been displayed
70
Q

Strengths of token economy programmes

A
  1. There is evidence of a short-term increase in prosocial behaviour within a prison. Tom Hobbs and Michael Holt (1976) found that targeted prosocial behaviour such as cooperating and doing chores significantly increased with the use of a token economy system
  2. It is fairly economical and cheap
  3. It can be administered easily by prison staff.
71
Q

Weaknesses of token economy programmes

A
  1. They are designed to control and manage prisoner behaviour, not to reduce recidivism. So they are unlikely to prevent reoffending because similar tokens are not found in everyday life. They lack ecological validity and have limited rehabilitative value
  2. They need commitment from prison staff to work. Failure of staff to give out tokens can result in antisocial behaviour
  3. There could be other reinforcement from other inmates encouraging antisocial behaviour. These may be stronger sources of influence than tokens.
72
Q

Anger management programmes

A
  1. Anger management programmes are designed as a form of rehabilitation for offenders who have committed violent crimes because of their anger
  2. During the treatment, offenders are encouraged to identify triggers to angry outbursts, to find ways of coping with their feelings and to gain the ability to resolve conflict situations in a better way than becoming angry
  3. Cognitive behavioural treatment for violent offenders to help them control their anger
  4. It is a 3-stage process
73
Q

3 stages in anger management programmes

A
  1. Cognitive preparation
  2. Skills acquisition
  3. Application practice
74
Q

Cognitive preparation (anger management)

A

where an offender has to reflect on their own anger: what makes them angry, why they feel angry, and how feeling angry may be counter-productive

75
Q

Skills acquisition (anger management)

A
  1. an offender learns new skills to help them control their anger
  2. they can learn relaxation techniques or assertiveness training (so they can assert their point without resorting to anger
76
Q

Application practice (anger management)

A

this stage involves role playing anger-triggering situations so that an offender can practise their new skills

77
Q

Strengths of anger management programmes

A
  1. Offenders are selected to receive anger management, which improves the success of the treatment
  2. Craig Dowden, Kelley Blanchette, and Ralph Serin (1999) found that high-risk offenders who received anger management treatment were less likely to re-offend compared to those who did not undergo the programme
78
Q

Weaknesses of anger management programmes

A
  1. It assumes there is a link between anger and violent crimes, but not all violent crimes are committed due to anger - some violent criminals can be cold and calculating
  2. Offenders can abuse the programme. The programme teaches offenders to control and manage their anger, a skill that may be used to commit crimes more effectively than before. Marnie Rice (1977) found that psychopaths were more likely to reoffend and become more dangerous after anger management because they had acquired new skills that helped them manipulate others more effectively
  3. The findings are mixed and limited as Kevin Howells (2005) did not find any improvement other than the treated offenders having a greater understanding of anger, suggesting an educational benefit but no reduction in reoffending
  4. These mixed outcomes are probably because anger management programmes need offenders to be highly motivated, have good insight and understanding of themselves, and be able to practise their anger management skills which can result in programme failure.
79
Q

Psychopath

A

a person who is characterised by a lack of guilt and emotion, antisocial behaviour, selfishness

80
Q

Bandura, Ross and Ross

A
  1. Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)

2. Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models

81
Q

Background to the study (Bandura)

A
  1. Albert Bandura, Dorothea Ross and Sheila Ross were influenced by previous research that demonstrated that children could learn incidentally through the mere observation of another.
  2. They were also interested in sex-appropriate behaviour and punished for sex-inappropriate behaviour
  3. For example girls would be rewarded for role-playing housework, but punished for rough-and-tumble play
  4. These sex-appropriate behaviours would have been reinforced throughout childhood and therefore children would be more likely to be in the habit of imitating same-sex role model behaviour
82
Q

Aims (Bandura)

A
  1. To see if children would imitate aggression that was role-played by an observed adult
  2. The researchers were specifically interested in whether the sex of the role model and sex of the child would be an important factor in whether a child would imitate aggression or not
  3. As aggression is considered to be a male behaviour rather than a female one, they were interested to see whether sex influences the likelihood of aggression being imitated
83
Q

Procedure (Bandura)

A
  1. The child was brought into a playroom by the experimenter with the model
  2. The model and the child are brought to a corner of the room. The child is shown how to play with potato prints and stickers
  3. The model (either female or male) is taken to the other side of the room and the experimenter explained these are the toys that the model is to play with (this was important because it was assumed that if the child later imitated the models behaviour they had learnt the behaviour not from any instruction, but from observation)
  4. In the aggressive condition, the model played aggressive with an inflatable bobo-doll (punching it, hitting it etc). They also spoke aggressively to the doll
  5. In the non-aggressive condition the model played with construction toys
  6. After 10 minutes the experimenter returned. The experimenter and participant said goodbye to the model
  7. The participant was brought into a room with lots of attractive toys and were told they could play with the toys
  8. When the participant began playing with the toys, they were told by the experimenter they had to stop playing as they were the best toys and for the other children (to instigate mild aggression) however they can play with the toys next door
  9. The experimenter and participant then went to the room next door were there was a set of toys in a fixed orderThe experimenter sat in the corner doing “paperwork”
  10. The child was left to play by themselves for 20 minutes. They were observed through a one-way mirror on if they displayed aggressive or non-aggressive behaviour.
84
Q

Results (Bandura)

A
  1. Children who were exposed to the aggressive role model, whether male or female, displayed more aggression than the control group exposed to a non-aggressive role model, suggesting that children imitate aggression (both verbal and physical)
  2. Boys were far more likely to copy the same-sex aggressive role model in terms of imitating physical aggression than girls
  3. However, girls were equally as likely as boys to imitate verbal aggression of a same-sex role model
  4. Girls spent significantly more time playing with dolls and a tea set, while boys spent more time with a toy gun.
85
Q

Conclusions (Bandura)

A
  1. The children saw the adult model as a role model so they imitated the observed behaviour. It is likely in the past the children have received reinforcement for behaviour for behaving grown up
  2. Children learn through observation in the absence of reinforcement, and provided experimental evidence for social learning theory
  3. Children learn aggression from adult role models, particularly if the model was of the same sex as the child
  4. This process of imitation occurred with a model unknown to the child, showing that aggression could be easily imitated from any aggressor
86
Q

Strengths to Bandura’s study

A
  1. Researchers were able to control the environments and use a standardised procedure to ensure that all children experienced exactly the same conditions of the experiment. This means that the procedure was replicable and should have resulted in reliable findings.
  2. The children were in groups matched in groups according to their normal levels of aggression. This ensures that one group is not naturally more or less aggressive than another group. The results were compared with the child’s normal level of aggression
87
Q

Weaknesses to Bandura’s study

A
  1. Children were tested in an unfamiliar environment and may have guessed the aims of the research. One child said to his mother “That was the adult we were supposed to copy” indicating that they thought they were supposed to copy the model rather than spontaneously act. This is known as demand characteristics
  2. The children were deliberately exposed to small levels of aggression and could not predict the long-term effects on behaviour for the child. They can be accused of not protecting the participants involved, presenting ethical issues.
88
Q

Charlton et al.

A
  1. 2000
  2. Children’s playground behaviour across Five Years of Broadcast Television : A naturalistic Study in a Remote community
89
Q

Background of the study (Charlton)

A
  1. This research was conducted on the island of St Helena, a small British colony in the South Atlantic Ocean
  2. The island did not have access to mainland television channels but there were plans to introduce it via satellite.
  3. Tony Charlton and other researchers were interested to see what influence television would have on the children of the island
90
Q

Aims (Charlton)

A
  1. To investigate the effects of television on children’s behaviour
  2. The researchers were particularly interested to see whether television would cause the children to become more aggressive
91
Q

Procedure (Charlton)

A
  1. The study was a natural experiment because the researchers did not directly manipulate the independent variable which is the introduction of television
  2. The dependent variable was the behaviour of the children before and after television was introduced
  3. This was measured in terms of prosocial and antisocial acts that were displayed in the playground
  4. The researchers went to the island in 1994 and recorded the behaviour of children 4 months before satellite television was introduced
  5. Video cameras were set up in two primary schools to observe the playground behaviour of children between 3 and 8 years old, over a 2 week period. They recorded 256 minutes of free play.
  6. Five years after television was introduced, the researchers returned to the island and filmed similar-aged children at the primary school once more.
  7. over a 2 week period, 344 minutes of footage was recorded
92
Q

Results (Charlton)

A
  1. there were five declines in prosocial behaviour of both boys and girls in single gender pairs/groups and mixed pairs/groups.
  2. They also found two increases in prosocial behaviour of boys playing alone, and two decreases in antisocial behaviour of boys and girls
  3. There was no change in antisocial behaviour observed in children’s playground such as fighting, hitting, pushing, etc after television was introduced
  4. Boys had a tendency to display more antisocial acts than girls (around 4 times more) and girls were slightly more likely to show prosocial behaviour, although this was not significant
  5. Both boys and girls displayed twice as much prosocial behaviour compared to antisocial behaviour
93
Q

Conclusions (Charlton)

A
  1. The researchers concluded that television had little influence on the behaviour of the children studied, and that the children were not copying the aggression that they witnessed on television
  2. The researchers pointed out that there might be environmental conditions specific to the island that could explain why the children did not imitate television aggression
  3. In particular, the close-knit nature of the community and the high levels of adult surveillance over the children may have explained why television had little effect on the children’s behaviour
94
Q

Strengths of Charlton’s study

A
  1. The same primary schools were used in both the before and after television observation. Even if different children were observed, since its the same environment the differences could be minimised
  2. It was a natural experiment which means that it was conducted under naturally occurring circumstances. This means that the behaviour of the children would have been natural and unaffected by the presence of strange observers
95
Q

Weaknesses of Charlton’s study

A
  1. The findings of the study may be limited to this particular community. Research carried out in different locations have not been able to replicate these findings. Tannis Williams (1981) conducted a similar study on three communities in Canada and found that television did increase aggression in children
  2. Other researchers have pointed out that the television programmes watched on the island were not the same as on mainland television and could have contained less violence. such as teenage mutant ninja turtle which was not broadcasted on the island
96
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

giving a reward

97
Q

negative reinforcement

A

taking away something bad

98
Q

positive punishment

A

giving something undesirable

99
Q

negative punishment

A

taking away something desirable

IGCSE Psychology (53 decks)

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