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IGCSE Psychology > Research Methods - 6 > Flashcards

Research Methods - 6 Flashcards

1
Q

Phycological Research

A
  1. Research that underpins psychological explanations and is crucial to the scientific process.
  2. Suggest theories that revolve around human behaviour and test them using psychological investigations or studies
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2
Q

Types of variables

A
  1. Independent variable
  2. Dependent variable
  3. Extraneous Variables
  4. Situational variables
  5. Participant variables
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3
Q

Independent Variable

A
  1. Variable that is directly manipulated by the researcher to examine the effect
  2. Can have two or more levels (2 or more manipulations) - the variable can either be manipulated and altered several times under several tests
  3. To identify, find the factor being altered between tests/conditions
  4. must be operationalised - detailed and specific
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4
Q

Dependent Variable

A
  1. variable that is being measured
  2. Is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable
  3. outcome of the study
  4. to identify, find the factor being measured
  5. must be operationalised - detailed and specific
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5
Q

Operationalised

A
  1. detailed and specific

2. another researcher must know how to measure, change and manipulate an operationalised variable

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6
Q

Extraneous variable

A
  1. factors that may interfere with the IV and DV and affect the results
  2. Associated with conditions of the study or participants
  3. If it is not controlled and has an effect on the outcome it is called a confounding variable
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7
Q

Confounding variable

A
  1. type of extraneous variable
  2. confounds the result
  3. effects the result fo the effect of the IV is not seen or evident
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8
Q

Situational variable

A
  1. present in the environment of the investigation
  2. e.g. noise, distractions, light levels, and temperature
  3. may affect the outcome of the experiment if it is changed between tests (is not controlled)
  4. how the experiment was conducted can lead to situational variables: demand characteristics, investigator effects, order effects,
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9
Q

demand characteristics

A
  1. participants may change their behaviour to meet the aim of the study
  2. Investigator effects - researcher unintentionally gives participants clues on how to behave
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10
Q

Order Effects

A

Participants improve or change because the test needs to be repeated numerous times

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11
Q

Participant variables

A
  1. associated with the people participating in the experiment
  2. participants have different abilities and tendencies that influence the outcome of the study especially is one participant is found only in one condition of the experiment.
  3. e.g. physical ability, personality type, substance tolerance, life experiences, mood etc
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12
Q

Standardised procedure

A

where the procedure of a study is the same across all conditions

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13
Q

Controlling extraneous variables

A
  1. eliminate or control the variable
  2. most can be controlled but not eliminated
  3. removing the likelihood of extraneous variables occuring
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14
Q

Controlling situational variable

A

standardised procedure

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15
Q

Controlling order effects

A
  1. counter balancing - half of the participants experience the first condition first and the second half does the second condition first so improvement and decline in performance are balanced
  2. randomisation - same principle as counterbalancing but the decision of which condition is first is random
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16
Q

Controlling demand characteristics

A
  1. single-blind technique - participants are blind to the aim of the study and certain information is withheld so the behaviour is not changed
  2. double-blind technique - both the participants and investigators don’t know the aim of the study (controls demand characteristics encouraged by investigator effects
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17
Q

Controlling participant variables

A
  1. use the same participants for all conditions of the experiment so the data for each condition can be compared
  2. use different participants that are matched to important characteristics
  3. random allocation - participants are randomly assigned to different conditions so that results are in random distribution
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18
Q

Hypothesis

A
  1. Every study has a null hypothesis and an alternative (experimental) hypothesis
  2. Predicted outcomes of the study
  3. way it is written is dependent on what the experiment is looking for
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19
Q

Null hypothesis

A
  1. prediction that the result of outcome will have little to no effect
  2. “any difference will be due to chance” because it is unlikely that no difference will be found
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20
Q

Alternative (experimental) hypothesis

A
  1. Prediction of the expected outcome of a study based on a theory
  2. directional hypothesis, non-directional hypothesis, and experimental hypothesis
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21
Q

directional hypothesis

A
  1. if the theory makes a clear claim
  2. the expected direction that the results will go in
  3. shows correlation
  4. e.g. “adults will recall more digits than children”
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22
Q

non-directional hypothesis

A
  1. if the theory is unable to make a clear claim
  2. a difference or relationship will be found but des not state the difference of relationship
  3. e.g. “there will be a difference in the number of digits recalled by adults and children”
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23
Q

Experimental hypothesis

A
  1. used when a lab or field experiment is being carried out
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24
Q

Methods of sampling

A
  1. random sampling technique
  2. stratified sampling technique
  3. Volunteer sampling technique
  4. Opportunity sampling technique
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25
Q

Target population

A
  1. group of people that a study wishes to focus, study and apply the findings on
  2. a sample of the target population will be used to represent the target population
  3. Findings of the study has to be generalised to the target population
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26
Q

Sample

A

a selection of the target population that is directly studied in an investigation

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27
Q

generalisability

A

the extent to which the results of a study represent the whole population not just the sample used

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28
Q

sampling method

A

a technique used to gather a representative group of people as a sample from the target population

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29
Q

random sampling technique

A
  1. target population must be identified and all have an equal chance of getting chosen
  2. involves assigning every member with a number and drawing them e.g. lottery
  3. strength: should generate a representative sample as each member has an equal chance of getting chosen (helps control participant variables)
  4. weakness: even if randomly selected not everyone may agree to taking part leading to a less representative sample
  5. used to gather a random sample of participants from the target population
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30
Q

stratified sampling technique

A
  1. can be used if a target population is made up of different people and a researcher wants to replicate the experiment
  2. identifies the subgroups within the target population and takes a random sample from each to ensure they are all represented in the sample
  3. ensures subgroups of the target population are proportionately represented in a sample
  4. strength: useful if a small subgroup of the target population may be missed by using a random sampling technique and ensures that the sample is completely representative
  5. weakness: time-consuming and people may still refuse to take part which leads to a sample error and wrong conclusions being drawn
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31
Q

sample error

A

when a sample differs in qualities from the target population it intends to represent

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32
Q

biased sample

A

when the sample recruited is made up of a particular type of person which may not reflect the target population

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33
Q

Volunteer sampling technique

A
  1. involves gathering a sample of participants who are willing to volunteer themselves to take place in a study.
  2. advertising the study in adverts or a noticeboards that request volunteers to get in touch if they would like to participate
  3. strength: minimal effort for researches to identify and select a sample. It is possible to recruit from a target population by placing the advert in a specific location. It is also the most ethical sampling method because participants are not asked to participate directly and avoids putting pressure on people to participate
  4. weakness: less representative as not everyone in the target location will respond to the ad and can lead to a biased sample making the results unreliable
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34
Q

Opportunity sampling

A
  1. makes use of people who happen to be around at the time of the research
  2. Asking people to agree to take part os simply studying people who happen to be there without their agreement
  3. recruits participants who are readily available at the time
  4. strength: quickest and simplest sampling
  5. weakness: biased sample as not every member of the target population will be around at a time. The study is hard to replicate making it unreliable
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35
Q

Reliability

A
  1. consistency of an outcome which means that the same result is found again and again
  2. cannot trust results if they only found once
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36
Q

Validity

A
  1. extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure
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37
Q

Laboratory experiment

A
  1. takes place in a controlled experiment (artificial environment)
  2. researchers stage the conditions of the study and invite participants along
  3. Has an IV and a DV and the aim is to discover cause and effect between these variable
  4. useful for studies that need to isolate the IV and DV and exercise control
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38
Q

Field Experiment

A
  1. takes place in a natural environment
  2. has an IV that is manipulated by the researcher and a DV that is being measured
  3. Control over extraneous variables but not as much control as a lab experiment
  4. participants may or may not be aware they are taking part in the research
  5. useful when studying behaviour that needs to be seen and tested in a natural environment
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39
Q

Natural experiment

A
  1. occurs in a real-life environment
  2. has an IV and DV but the researchers are not manipulating the IV - it occurs naturally
  3. make use of naturally occurring situations
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40
Q

Types of research and experimental design

A
  1. Independent measures design
  2. Repeated measures design
  3. Matched pairs design
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41
Q

Research design

A

how participants are allocated to the conditions of a study

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42
Q

Experimental design

A

the name given to research design when used in an experiment

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43
Q

Independent measures design

A
  1. participants are split into groups with each group tested in only one condition of a study
  2. This is also known as independent groups design
  3. Sometimes this is the only design possible, if gender or age is the IV for e.g.
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44
Q

Repeated measures design

A

the same participants are used in all conditions of a study

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45
Q

Matched pairs design

A
  1. different participants are used in each condition of the study, but are matched for likeness on important characteristics
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46
Q

Strengths of independent measures design

A

no order effect as participants only take part in one condition of the study

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47
Q

Weaknesses of independent measures design

A
  1. more participants are needed than for a repeated measures design
  2. There may be individual differences between the groups (participants should be randomly allocated)
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48
Q

Pros of Repeated measures design

A
  1. Fewer participants are needed making it more economical

2. There are not individual differences between conditions of the study

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49
Q

Cons of repeated measures design

A
  1. Demand characteristics are more likely as participants are more able to guess the aim
  2. Order effects mean that results may reflect practice or fatigue (use counterbalancing or randomisation)
50
Q

Pros of matched pairs design

A

fair comparisons can be made between the groups as they are equally matched

51
Q

Cons of matched pairs design

A

it is more time-consuming to match participants and not all characteristics can be equally matched

52
Q

Triangulation

A

when more than one measure is taken for a behaviour to cross-validate the findings

53
Q

Ethic requirements in psychology

A
  1. Respect for the autonomy, privacy, and dignity of individuals and communities
  2. Scientific integrity
  3. Social responsibility
  4. Maximising benefit and minimising harm
54
Q

Ethic issues in psychology

A
  1. Informed consent
  2. Deception
  3. Confidentiality
  4. Right to Withdraw
  5. Protection of participants
  6. Debriefing
55
Q

Informed consent

A
  1. agreement of participants to take part once they are fully aware of the aims, nature, and intended outcomes of a study
  2. It is important that participants give their informed consent to participate in psychology research
  3. To achieve this, participants are given a consent form and information about the study
  4. The participant is then given the choice as to whether or not they still want to participant
  5. Sometimes research is conducted without the consent of participants such as observing everyday behaviour of people in public places. However even then, researchers should be sensitive to issues of privacy and cultural beliefs.
56
Q

Deception

A
  1. Deception is misleading or lying to participants
  2. This violates a participants ability to give informed consent, so should be avoided
  3. However, it can be seen as necessary to deceive participants to maintain the integrity of a study, as long as the participants are protected and the deception is disclosed as soon as possible which usually occurs during a debrief
57
Q

Confidentiality

A
  1. Participant information should be kept confidential at all times to ensure participants cannot be identified by the research
58
Q

Right to withdraw

A
  1. from the outset of any research, participants should be aware that they have every right to withdraw from the study at any point
  2. This includes being able to withdraw their results for an agreed time after the study is complete
  3. a participant should never be offered an incentive, such as money, to forgo their right to withdraw
59
Q

Protection of participants

A
  1. safeguarding participants against physical and psychological harm
  2. Psychological harm is quite subjective as some people may be more distressed or embarrassed than others, so it is important to consider how each participant may feel from their point of view. Once this has been established, the researchers should highlight any aspect of a procedure that may cause individual psychological harm and minimise these risks
  3. Incentives should not be used to encourage participants to endure harm that is beyond what they may experinece in everyday life
60
Q

qualitative methods

A
  1. ways of conducting research that find out new information rather than testing a prediction
  2. often resulting in gathering qualitative data
61
Q

Triangulation

A

when more than one measure is taken for a behaviour to cross-validate the findings

62
Q

researcher bias

A

when a researcher interprets the outcome of a study according to their own view (subjective)

63
Q

Objective

A
  1. not open to interpretation

2. unbiased

64
Q

quantitative methods

A

ways of conducting research that test a prediction and gather quantitative data

65
Q

pros of lab experiments

A
  1. most scientific of the research methods due to control

2. cause and effect can be established between the ID and DV making it more valid

66
Q

cons of lab experiments

A
  1. conducted in an unnatural environment
  2. participants are invited to the experiment so they may display demand characteristics
  3. Considered reductionist because it isolates only the variables under consideration, ignoring other variables that could also be involved
67
Q

pros of field experiments

A
  1. conducted in a naturalistic environment, so the behaviour is natural
  2. There is cause and effect between the IV and DV and some extraneous variables can be controlled
68
Q

Cons of field experiments

A
  1. not all extraneous variables can be controlled because it is a real-life environment
  2. Participants may be unaware of taking part so researchers may not have gained consent
69
Q

Pros of natural experiment

A
  1. the IV is naturally occurring and not manipulated

2. The environment in which participants are studied is real and naturalistic

70
Q

cons of natural experiment

A
  1. it is not possible to randomly allocate participants to conditions of the IV so there may be issues with participant variables that can influence the findings
  2. extraneous variables are difficult to control
71
Q

interview

A

a research method designed to gather self-reported information from participants

72
Q

types of interviews

A
  1. structured interview
  2. semi-structured interview
  3. unstructured interview
73
Q

structured interview

A

a set of pre-set questions asked to a respondent

74
Q

interview schedule

A

a list of set questions around the study aim

75
Q

semi-structured interview

A

a mix of pre-set questions and unprepared questions asked to a responden

76
Q

unstructured interview

A

a free-flowing conversation around a particular topic with a respondent

77
Q

social desirability bias

A

during an interview, a respondent may answer a question in a way that is deemed socially acceptable

78
Q

interviewer effect

A

the characteristics of an interviewer impact the way a respondent answers questions

79
Q

closed-ended questions

A

questions with a fixes response to choose from

80
Q

open-ended questions

A

questions with no fixed response

81
Q

correlation

A

a way of analysing relationships between variables

82
Q

co-variables

A

two variables that can be plotted against each other to indicate the type of relationship between them

83
Q

observation

A

a research method that involves watching and recording behaviour

84
Q

naturalistic observation

A
  1. an observation conducted in an everyday environment where the behaviour being studied is normally seen
  2. Behaviour is likely to be natural
  3. Behaviour is likely to have higher ecological validity
  4. Low control lead to low internal validity, making it difficult to establish cause and effect
85
Q

controlled or structured observation

A
  1. an observation carried out in a lab or controlled environment
  2. Control over Extraneous variables, hence high internal validity
  3. Establishes cause and effect
  4. Can be unnatural and lead to low ecological validity
86
Q

overt observation

A
  1. participants know they are being observed as part of an investigation
  2. More ethical
  3. Open to demand characteristics
87
Q

covert observation

A
  1. participants are unaware that they are being observed
  2. also known as covert observation
  3. Behaviour is likely to be natural
  4. Behaviour is likely to have higher ecological validity
  5. Ethical issue of privacy
88
Q

Participant observation

A
  1. when an observer is involved in the group they are observing
  2. Data can be open to subjective interpretations
89
Q

non-participant observation

A

the observer watches and records people without being actively involved

90
Q

Inter-rater reliability

A

when more than one observer codes behaviour and their results are compared to check for agreement

91
Q

normal distribution

A

when mean, median, and mode are very similar or the same

92
Q

skewed distribution

A

when median and/or mode differ from the mean

93
Q

primary data

A

data collected directly for a specific research purpose

94
Q

secondary data

A

data used in a study that have already been collected, often for a different purpose

95
Q

meta-analysis

A

a procedure used to merge and analyse findings from studies focusing on a similar issue in order to draw overall conclusions

96
Q

risk-benefit

A

comparing a study’s risks and benefits to ensure the benefits outweighs the risks

97
Q

Internal validity

A

Internal validity is the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between a treatment and an outcome.

98
Q

external validity

A

External validity is the validity of applying the conclusions of a scientific study outside the context of that study.

99
Q

Debriefing

A

a meeting to question someone, typically a soldier or spy, about a completed mission or undertaking.

100
Q

Questionnaires

A

a self-report technique designed to ask lots of people questions about a topic

101
Q

Pros of Typical questionnaire with closed questions

A
  1. The data is collected and assessed in a standardised way meaning it is easy to replicate the research and objectively assess the data.
  2. We can test the reliability statistically e.g. test-retest.
  3. Data is quantitative (number) so statistical analysis can be used to compare groups of data.
  4. It is a quick method to collect data, hence a bigger sample is likely.
102
Q

cons of Typical questionnaire with closed questions

A
  1. People might lie, giving socially desirable answers.
  2. There is a limited number of responses so the participant might not be able to express themselves truthfully in their answer.
  3. Can’t be used by illiterate people (can’t read or write) e.g. children.
103
Q

pros of Un/Semi-Structured Interview

A
  1. Filler questions can be used so participants don’t guess the aim.
  2. Data-rich qualitative data is collected.
  3. Inter-rater reliability can be used to test the consistency of the qualitative data.
104
Q

cons of Un/Semi-Structured Interview

A
  1. It is a very time consuming process.
  2. People might lie, giving socially desirable answers.
  3. Very difficult to compare the results of one participant with another.
105
Q

structured observation

A
  1. An observation carried out in a laboratory or controlled environment
  2. Quantitative data collected so statistical tests can give objective interpretations
106
Q

unstructured observation

A
  1. Observer notes what they see
  2. Data-rich qualitative result
  3. Not all behaviours that are of interest might be recorded
  4. Data can be open to subjective interpretations
107
Q

positive correlation

A

A positive correlation means that when one variable increases, the other variable also increases.

108
Q

negative correlation

A

A negative correlation means that when one variable decreases, the other variable increases.

109
Q

strengths of correlation

A
  1. Can give you a more holistic view of the relationship between the two variables
  2. The variables are naturally occurring hence more ethical.
  3. Often the method involves questionnaires, so getting the data is convenient, hence better population validity.
  4. They are cheaper and less time-consuming than experimental research
  5. It is useful to study a topic that would be difficult to study experimentally for ethical reasons. Using co-variables rather than manipulation is less interventionist and therefore likely to be more ethical
110
Q

weaknesses of correlation

A
  1. You cannot assume a cause and effect relationship. It is hard to deduce whether one variables causes another to occur as it could be the other way around
  2. Cause and effect cannot be inferred. (3rd variable or we don’t know which variables cause the other).
  3. As the study is natural, there is often a lack of control, so other variables can influence the results.
  4. Non-linear relationships will not be identified by a correlation coefficient.
111
Q

Case study

A

a study of a single person, group, or event

112
Q

Descriptive statistics

A
  1. ways of summarising data to make raw data easier to understand
  2. Descriptive statistics include mean, median, mode, range, and also graphs
113
Q

Raw data

A

the results themselves, without analysis

114
Q

Measure of dispersion

A

a way of showing the spread of scores and variability

115
Q

Frequency score

A

the number of times each score if found in a dataset

116
Q

Frequency table

A

shows how often each score in a dataset is found using tallying

117
Q

population validity

A

Extend to which the results from a studies sample can be applied to other people.

118
Q

Longitudinal Study

A

A study which does not take place at one point in time. It may occurs over a number of week or months …etc

119
Q

pros of a case study

A
  1. A case study can be used in situations that would be unethical to set up experimentally
  2. Provides the most in-depth information about a particular individual. Data-rich information is collected. This allows the researcher to get a holistic opinion about the individual or group being studied.
  3. They can stimulate research into new areas of psychology that would not have been found unless rare individuals have been studied
  4. Another advantage of case studies is that the research happens in a natural environment. This means the studies usually have high ecological validity.
120
Q

cons of a case study

A
  1. Cannot be repeated to check the reliability of the findings as every individual studied is unique.
  2. The findings from case studies may not be applicable to other people, so lack generalisability. Many people acknowledge that case studies are not very scientific. The sample size is usually only one person. This means the study cannot generalize to other people, meaning the studies have low population validity.
  3. Since the researcher may be intensely involved in gathering of data from the case study, they may lose their objectivity and interpret the findings differently from others (research bias)

IGCSE Psychology (53 decks)

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