Criminology Theories Eden Flashcards
(204 cards)
1
Q
What does Durkheim believe about crime in society?
A
Crime is an integral part of all healthy societies.
2
Q
What does the acronym FIN stand for in Durkheim’s theory?
A
Functional, Inevitable, Normal.
3
Q
What does ‘Functional’ imply in Durkheim’s theory of crime?
A
Crime and deviance perform positive roles or jobs for society.
4
Q
What does ‘Inevitable’ mean in the context of Durkheim’s theory?
A
Crime and deviance are bound to happen in complex, modern societies.
5
Q
What does ‘Normal’ signify in Durkheim’s perspective on crime?
A
It is healthy to have some crime and deviance.
6
Q
Why is crime and deviance found in all societies according to Durkheim?
A
Not everyone is equally socialized into shared norms and values.
Diversity of lifestyles and values means different groups develop different morals.
7
Q
What are the positive functions of crime according to Durkheim?
A
Adaptation and change
Safety Valve
Boundary Maintenance
8
Q
What does Adaptation and Change mean according to Durkheim?
A
Suggested changes come from acts of deviance.
Individuals with new ideas, values, and ways of living must not be completely stifled by social control.
People challenge existing norms and values to bring about change.
Society needs to adapt to these new ideas and change.
9
Q
What reinforces social solidarity and shared rules according to Durkheim?
A
Boundary Maintenance
10
Q
What is a ‘Safety Valve’ in the context of crime?
A
Committing petty crimes can release frustrations to avoid more severe crimes.
11
Q
Give an example of a ‘Safety Valve’ as discussed by Durkheim.
A
The Holbeck red-light district in Leeds.
12
Q
What is the purpose of the Holbeck red-light district?
A
It allows prostitution in designated areas to ensure safety for sex workers.
13
Q
How does crime contribute to ‘Boundary Maintenance’?
A
Crime can unite society through shared values and condemning the wrongdoer.
14
Q
What are criticisms of Durkheim’s functionalist approach to crime?
A
He never states how much crime is needed for a functional society.
He does not explain why people commit crimes or why they commit particular types of crime.
Assumes norms and laws reflect the wishes of everyone.
Some crimes make people feel isolated, promoting fear rather than social solidarity.
15
Q
What assumption does Durkheim make about norms and laws?
A
He assumes they reflect the wishes of everyone.
16
Q
What do Marxists argue about laws in the context of crime?
A
Laws benefit the ruling class and punish the working class more harshly.
17
Q
What negative impact can some crimes have on society?
A
They can make people feel isolated and promote fear rather than social solidarity.
18
Q
Who believes that crime is an integral part of all healthy societies?
A
Durkheim
19
Q
What theory does Cohen agree with regarding deviance?
A
Cohen agrees with Merton’s theory that deviance stems from the lower classes’ failure to achieve by legitimate means.
Merton’s theory focuses on the strain theory of deviance.
20
Q
How does Cohen view subcultural deviance?
A
Cohen sees subcultural deviance as a group response to failure, not just as individual behavior.
This emphasizes the collective nature of delinquency among youths.
21
Q
What type of crimes does Cohen focus on?
A
Cohen focuses on non-utilitarian crimes (not for financial gain).
These crimes are committed for reasons other than monetary profit.
22
Q
What is ‘Status Frustration’ according to Cohen?
A
Status Frustration suggests most working-class boys end up at the bottom of the social hierarchy, feeling worthless and joining a subculture to gain status.
He suggests they gain respect from their peers through delinquent actions.
23
Q
What are the three subcultures identified by Cohen?
A
The three subcultures are:
* Criminal Subcultures
* Conflict Subcultures
* Retreatist Subcultures
Each subculture arises from different social circumstances and responses to failure.
24
Q
What characterizes Criminal Subcultures?
A
Criminal Subcultures arise in areas with a longstanding criminal network and select youths for apprenticeships in utilitarian crime.
This subculture provides a structured way to engage in crime.
25
What defines Conflict Subcultures?
Conflict Subcultures arise where the only crime opportunity is gang violence, providing a release for frustration and earning status through territorial gains.
## Footnote
This highlights the aggressive nature of this subculture.
26
What is the focus of Retreatist Subcultures?
Retreatist Subcultures are formed by those who fail in both legitimate and illegitimate opportunities, often involving drug abuse and petty crime.
## Footnote
This reflects a withdrawal from both social structures.
27
What is a criticism of Cohen's theory?
Cohen assumes all working-class boys accept the mainstream success goals and does not consider that delinquent behavior could be a protest against those values.
## Footnote
This critique points to a potential oversight of diverse motivations for delinquency.
28
True or False: Cohen's theory focuses only on working-class boys.
True
## Footnote
His theory emphasizes working-class boys but neglects other groups that engage in delinquent behavior.
29
What are the two main dimensions of Eysenck's Personality Theory linked to criminal behaviour?
Extroversion and Neuroticism
## Footnote
Extroversion refers to sociability and excitement-seeking, while Neuroticism involves moodiness and emotional instability.
30
Define Extroversion in the context of Eysenck's theory.
Sociable, bores easily, craves excitement, enjoys change
## Footnote
Extroverts are characterized by their need for stimulation and excitement.
31
Define Neuroticism according to Eysenck.
Reserved, likes to plan, serious, reliable.
Moody, anxious, worried, emotional
## Footnote
Neuroticism is the opposite of emotional stability.
32
What personality traits are associated with criminality in Eysenck’s theory?
High scores in Extroversion and Neuroticism
## Footnote
Criminal personalities tend to score high on both E and N scales.
33
How did Eysenck measure personality traits?
Through a questionnaire ranking on E scale (extroversion) and N scale (neuroticism)
## Footnote
This method allows for the assessment of personality traits quantitatively.
34
What is the relationship between Extroversion and risk-taking behaviour according to Eysenck?
Extroverts seek excitement, leading to risk-taking behaviour
## Footnote
This increases the chances of punishment due to their actions.
35
How do Neurotics struggle with societal conditioning according to Eysenck?
High anxiety levels prevent learning from past mistakes
## Footnote
This makes it difficult for them to conform to society’s rules.
36
What is Eysenck’s biological explanation for criminality?
Eysenck believed we learn through conditioning. However, some people inherit a nervous system that makes them more likely to develop a criminal personality.
37
What was the sample size of Eysenck's research on personality traits in prisoners?
2,070 male prisoners and a control group of 2,422 males
## Footnote
This research aimed to compare personality traits between offenders and non-offenders.
38
What were the findings of Eysenck's research regarding personality scores?
Prisoners scored higher than the control group in E, N, and P scores
## Footnote
This supports Eysenck’s theory of personality traits in criminal behaviour.
39
What is one strength of Eysenck's theory?
Shows how measurable personality traits can increase the risk of offending
## Footnote
This provides a framework for understanding criminal behaviour.
40
What is one weakness of Eysenck's theory?
Farrington found that prisoners had high N and P scores but not E, contradicting Eysenck’s findings.
People may lie on questionnaires
Some offenders score high on impulsivity but not sociability
## Footnote
This suggests that not all criminals fit the extroverted personality profile.
41
True or False: All offenders score high in sociability according to Eysenck's theory.
False
## Footnote
Some offenders may score high on impulsivity without being extroverted.
42
What is the first psychodynamic theory developed by Freud?
Psychoanalysis
## Footnote
Freud's theory emphasizes the influence of early childhood on personality and behavior.
43
How did Freud view the role of early experiences?
They determine whether we act in socially acceptable ways
## Footnote
Early experiences shape personality and future behavior.
44
What does Freud believe drives our actions?
Urges, feelings, and conflicts within the unconscious mind
## Footnote
These driving forces are often hidden from our conscious awareness.
45
What is the unconscious mind according to Freud?
It holds our deviant and sexual desires
## Footnote
Only a small amount of our thoughts are conscious.
If you have a healthy psyche, you can keep these urges in your unconscious mind?
46
How many years of life does Freud believe are crucial for personality development?
The first 5 years
## Footnote
This period is critical for shaping personality.
47
What are the three components of Freud's structure of personality?
* Id
* Superego
* Ego
## Footnote
Each component interacts to shape behaviour and decisions.
48
What function does the Id serve in Freud's theory?
Needs instant gratification and stimulation
## Footnote
It acts on urges, is selfish and can lead to criminal behaviour.
49
What role does the Superego play in Freud's structure of personality?
It represents our moral conscience, and is who we perceive ourselves to be.
## Footnote
The Superego is developed through socialization.
50
What is the function of the Ego in Freud's theory?
Balances the Id and Superego, making rational decisions
## Footnote
It considers reality and social norms.
51
What did Freud suggest about the development of the brain and anti-social behavior?
Improper development due to lack of early socialization can lead to anti-social behaviour
## Footnote
This indicates the importance of early social experiences.
52
What was Bowlby's view on the maternal relationship?
It is essential for a child's development
## Footnote
A strong maternal bond is crucial for healthy relationships later in life.
53
What are some consequences of not forming a strong maternal bond, according to Bowlby?
* Struggle to relate to others
* Develop insecure adult relationships
* Possibly become criminal
## Footnote
These outcomes highlight the importance of early maternal attachment.
54
What was the aim of Bowlby's Thieves Study?
To investigate the effects of maternal deprivation
## Footnote
The study focused on 44 juvenile delinquents at a child guidance clinic between 1936-1939.
55
How many children were selected for Bowlby's Thieves Study?
88 children
## Footnote
This included 44 thieves and 44 admitted for emotional problems.
56
What percentage of the thieves in Bowlby's study experienced maternal deprivation within the first 5 years?
86%
## Footnote
This statistic emphasizes the impact of early deprivation.
57
What percentage of the thieves experienced maternal deprivation within the first 6 months?
50%
## Footnote
This indicates a critical window for maternal bonding.
58
What was a significant finding regarding the control group in Bowlby's study?
None were diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths
## Footnote
This highlights a contrast with the delinquents studied.
59
What percentage of the thieves were classified as affectionless psychopaths?
30%
## Footnote
This classification suggests a link between maternal deprivation and psychopathic traits.
60
What tests/activities did Bowlby's Thieves Study include?
o IQ tests with psychologists.
o Emotional assessments of the children.
o Social worker interviews with parents to assess childhood background.
o Psychiatric interviews with the child and parent.
61
What is Jacob’s XYY Theory?
The theory that crime is linked to chromosomal abnormalities.
62
What is the genetic abnormality associated with Jacob’s XYY Theory?
XYY is a genetic abnormality found only in males.
63
What are males with the XYY condition sometimes called?
'Super Males'.
## Footnote
They are believed to be more aggressive and lack empathy
64
What traits are associated with XYY males?
* Tend to be tall
* Well-built
* Fit stereotypes of violent offenders
* Often have low intelligence.
* May not fully understand severity of their actions
65
What percentage of the studied males in Jacob's study had the XYY chromosome?
1.5%.
66
What was the prevalence of XYY in the general population when Karyotyping was carried out by Jacob ?
1 in 1,000.
67
Who is an example of an XYY male?
John Wayne Gacy.
68
What crime is John Wayne Gacy known for?
Murdering at least 33 people.
69
What is a criticism of the XYY Theory regarding prison populations?
XYY may not be the main factor for why someone is in prison.
## Footnote
Environmental factors play a significant role in criminal behaviour
70
What role do environmental factors play in criminal behavior according to the XYY Theory?
They play a significant role.
71
What is a limitation of the research on XYY males?
Sample Bias in Research.
## Footnote
Many studies focused on convicted criminals, making the results not representative of the general population.
72
Why is the research on XYY males considered not representative?
Many studies focused on convicted criminals.
73
Fill in the blank: Males with the XYY condition are sometimes referred to as _______.
'Super Males'.
74
True or False: XYY males are always violent offenders.
False.
75
Fill in the blank: The genetic abnormality XYY is found only in _______.
males.
76
What is Karyotyping?
A laboratory procedure used to examine chromosomal abnormalities.
77
Who is John Wayne Gacy?
A serial killer who murdered at least 33 people. He has the XYY chromosome.
78
What age group was studied in Kohlberg's 1958 study?
Boys aged 10-16 years old
## Footnote
72 boys aged 10-16 from Chicago
79
How many boys were followed up every 3 years in Kohlberg's study?
58 boys
## Footnote
58 boys were followed up every 3 years for 20 years taking part in 2 hour interviews
80
What was the duration of the follow-up interviews in Kohlberg's study?
20 years
81
What method did Kohlberg use to collect data in his study?
2-hour interviews
82
What did the results of Kohlberg's study help identify?
The 3 levels of moral reasoning
83
What is a limitation of Kohlberg's study related to the sample?
Gender bias (only boys were studied)
## Footnote
This means the data is not generalizable
84
What is social desirability bias?
Participants may give answers they think are expected rather than their true opinions
85
What does Kohlberg's theory investigate?
How moral reasoning changes with age
86
What is the focus of Pre-Conventional Level morality?
Immediate external consequences - young people define right and wrong in terms of what brings them punishment or reward.
## Footnote
Fear of punishment and personal gain
87
What is the basis of decisions in Stage 1 of Pre-Conventional Morality?
Fear of punishment
88
What characterizes Stage 2 of Pre-Conventional Morality?
Decisions based on personal gain
89
What does Conventional Level morality include?
Understanding wider moral principles and values
90
What is the focus of Stage 3 in Conventional Morality?
Obeying society’s views of right and wrong
91
What is the basis for decisions in Stage 4 of Conventional Morality?
The need for social order
92
What is a key characteristic of Post-Conventional Morality?
Developing own moral views separate from society’s norms
93
What is Stage 5 of Post-Conventional Morality about?
Realizing rules are for the greater good but may need to be broken
94
What does Stage 6 of Post-Conventional Morality involve?
Absorbing universal ethical principles like equality and justice
95
What types of criminals fall under Pre-Conventional Criminals?
Theft, vandalism, murder, rape
96
What is a characteristic of Conventional Criminals?
Most conventional people are not criminals
97
What describes Post-Conventional Criminals?
Prioritize ethical principles over laws
98
Fill in the blank: Kohlberg's theory argues that our idea of right and wrong develops through a series of _______.
levels and stages
99
True or False: Only a few people reach Stages 5 & 6 of Kohlberg's moral development.
True
100
What is a potential issue with the interviews used in Kohlberg's study?
They can be lengthy/repetitive
## Footnote
This could lead to boys giving random answers to finish faster
101
What is the implication of Kohlberg's theory for understanding criminal behavior?
Criminals are often stuck at a less mature moral level
## Footnote
They think only in punishment and reward rather than considering how their actions affect others, making them more likely to offend.
102
What age range does Kohlberg attach to pre-conventional morality?
Children under 9
103
What age range does Kohlberg attach to conventional morality?
Most adolescents and some adults
104
What age range does Kohlberg attach to post-conventional morailty?
Some adults - not all reach this level
105
What happens at stage 5 and 6 of Kohlberg's post-conventional morality?
Stage 5 - a person realises that rules are for the greater good but sometimes need to be broken for personal ethics.
Stage 6 - A person fully absorbs universal ethical principles like equality and justice and is willing to face consequences to fight for these principles.
106
What characterises pre-conventional criminals?
Only think about personal gain and if can avoid punishment they will commit crimes.
## Footnote
Typical crimes - theft, vandalism, murder, rape
107
What characterises conventional criminals?
Someone exposed to different norms and values may commit violence (eg. gang culture). Their criminal actions may be learned rather than being inherent.
## Footnote
Most conventional people are not criminals.
108
What characterises post-conventional criminals?
Prioritise ethical principles over laws. Believe breaking laws is necessary for the greater good.
## Footnote
Typical crimes - human rights activists, suffragettes.
109
What does cognition refer to?
Thinking and mental processes, such as attitudes, beliefs, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and self-concept.
110
When did Kohlberg develop the theory of moral development?
1958
## Footnote
Investigates how moral reasoning changes with age
111
What are Kohlberg's 3 stages of moral development?
Pre conventional morality
Conventional morality
Post-conventional morality
112
What is typical of adults who reach post-conventioal morality?
They develop their own moral views, separate from society's norms
113
What is the main aim of adoption studies?
To determine the effect of environment and genetics on a person's criminality.
114
When is the adoption theory most effective?
If the child is separated from their biological parents at birth.
115
What did Mednick et al. study?
Data from 14,000 adopted sons in Denmark (1924-1947).
116
What was a key finding of the Mednick et al. study regarding biological parents' criminal records?
Sons were more likely to have a criminal record if their biological parents did.
117
What was the concordance rate found in the Mednick et al. study?
20%.
118
What percentage of children had a criminal record when neither biological nor adoptive fathers had one?
10%.
119
What does the significance of adoption studies highlight?
The importance of nature (genes) and nurture (environment).
120
How do adoption studies help distinguish between genetic and environmental influences?
Since adopted twins are not raised in the same environment.
121
What is a limitation of adoption studies related to social backgrounds?
Adoptive parents may be very similar in social class and live in the same area as biological parents.
122
What impact does the age of adoption have on a child's behavior?
Early experiences in their biological family may still influence their behavior.
123
Fill in the blank: The concordance rate in the Mednick et al. study was _______.
20%.
124
True or False: Adoption studies can completely separate environmental influences from genetic ones.
False.
125
What can brain damage lead to in an individual?
Immaturity, Loss of self-control, Inability to modify behaviour
126
What research method did Raine et al. (1994) use to study impulsive killers?
PET scans (Positron Emission Tomography)
127
Which part of the brain is associated with impulse control and was found to be damaged by Raine et al (1994) in impulsive killers?
Prefrontal cortex
128
According to McIsaac et al. (2016), how much more likely are people with brain damage to end up in prison?
Twice as likely
129
According to McIsaac et al (2016), what percentage of female prisoners were found to be more likely to be in prison after a traumatic head injury?
2.76 times more likely
## Footnote
Limitation of this is that only 0.5 - 0.2% of females were affected
130
What correlation has been found between brain activity and criminality?
Correlation between psychopathic criminality and EEG ratings
131
What is a major criticism of brain abnormality studies in relation to criminality?
Causation Issue
## Footnote
Many prisoners could have acquired a brain injury as a result of their criminality, rather than the brain injury being the cause.
132
What can be a reason for prisoners having brain injuries according to the causation criticism?
They could have acquired a brain injury as a result of their criminality
133
Who is Phineas Gage and what significant event happened to him?
Suffered a traumatic brain injury when an iron rod went through his skull
134
What part of Phineas Gage's brain was destroyed due to his injury?
Left frontal lobe
135
What behavioural changes did Phineas Gage exhibit after his injury?
Became antisocial, had bad manners, and showed poor impulse control
## Footnote
Supports the theory that brain damage can cause behavioural changes.
136
Fill in the blank: Damage to the _______ cortex can lead to loss of impulse control.
prefrontal
137
True or False: Brain damage can never lead to changes in behavior.
False
138
Who is considered the 'Father of Modern Criminology'?
Cesare Lombroso
## Footnote
Lombroso's contributions significantly shaped the field of criminology.
139
What are atavistic features according to Lombroso?
Primitive features that identify criminals, such as:
* Strong jaw
* High cheekbones
* Facial asymmetry
* Sloping brows
## Footnote
Lombroso believed these features indicated a throwback to earlier stages of human evolution.
140
How many atavistic features did Lombroso believe indicated a criminal?
5 or more atavistic features
## Footnote
This was a threshold he established for identifying potential criminals.
141
What specific features did Lombroso assign to murderers?
Murderers had:
* Bloodshot eyes
* Cold, glassy stare
* Large hawk-like noses
## Footnote
These characteristics were part of his classification of criminals.
142
How many dead and living criminals did Lombroso examine in his research?
383 dead criminals and 3,839 living criminals
## Footnote
His research aimed to establish correlations between physical features and criminal behavior.
143
What percentage of criminal acts did Lombroso believe could be explained by atavistic features?
40%
## Footnote
This statistic reflects his belief in the strong link between physical characteristics and criminality.
144
What was the outcome of the study conducted by a university in China on identifying criminals?
The AI correctly identified 83% of criminals and wrongly flagged 6% of innocent men
| The university submitted ID photos of 1,856 men to an AI program.
## Footnote
This study provides some support for Lombroso's theories, though with limitations.
145
What is one major criticism of Lombroso’s research?
Ethnocentrism
## Footnote
His study primarily involved Italian men, which limits the applicability of his findings to other populations.
146
What is another significant criticism of Lombroso's research methodology?
Lack of a Control Group
## Footnote
Without comparing criminals to non-criminals, he could not conclusively prove the uniqueness of atavistic features.
147
What does Merton argue society encourages people to subscribe to?
The American Dream
## Footnote
This is achieved through working as hard as possible to attain material wealth.
148
What does Merton suggest is a barrier for the working class?
Blocked opportunities
## Footnote
It is not always possible for them to succeed.
149
What can lead people to commit crimes according to Merton?
Blocked opportunities combined with society’s expectations
## Footnote
This is to achieve success and live the American Dream
150
What term does Merton use to describe the different ways people act to achieve their dreams?
Strain
151
What is an Innovator in Merton's Strain Theory?
Individuals who accept culturally approved goals but use illegitimate means to achieve them
## Footnote
Example: fraud.
152
What do Retreatists do in response to strain?
Reject both the goals and the means to achieve them
## Footnote
They become dropouts, including psychotics, outcasts, vagabonds, tramps, chronic alcoholics, and drug addicts.
153
What do Rebels seek to do according to Merton?
Reject society’s goals and replace them with new ones
## Footnote
They desire to bring revolutionary change.
154
What characterizes Conformists in Merton’s theory?
They accept culturally approved goals and strive to achieve them legitimately.
155
What are Ritualists described as in Merton's Strain Theory?
People who have given up on achieving the goals but still follow the rules
## Footnote
They usually end up in dead-end jobs.
156
What is one criticism of Merton's theory?
It does not consider the source of social goals or in whose interest society is socialized into believing them.
## Footnote
People have different ideas of their own American Dream.
Merton shows how both normal and deviant behaviour can arise from the same mainstream goal.
Both conformists and innovators are pursuing monetary goals.
157
According to Merton, do different people have the same idea of the American Dream?
No, different people may have different ideas of their own American Dream.
158
What does Merton show about normal and deviant behavior?
Both can arise from the same mainstream goal.
159
What common goal do both conformists and innovators pursue?
Monetary goals.
160
What Theory did Merton develop?
Strain Theory
161
What is Sheldon’s theory of somatotypes?
Criminal behavior is linked to physical form.
162
How many somatotypes did William Sheldon propose?
Three somatotypes:
* Endomorphs
* Ectomorphs
* Mesomorphs
163
What are the characteristics of endomorphs?
* Fat
* Soft
* Sociable
* Relaxed
* Hedonistic
164
What are the characteristics of ectomorphs?
* Thin
* Fragile
* Calm
* Introverted
* Restrained
165
What are the characteristics of mesomorphs?
* Muscular
* Hard
* Aggressive
* Adventurous
* Emotional
166
What type of study did Sheldon conduct?
A correlation study using photos of college students and delinquents.
167
How did participants rate themselves in Sheldon’s study?
On a scale of 1-7 based on their resemblance to mesomorphy.
168
What did Sheldon suggest about mesomorphs and aggression?
The link could be due to higher testosterone levels in mesomorphs.
169
What was the resemblance rating for mesomorphs among criminals and non-criminals?
4.6 for criminals compared to 3.8 for non-criminals.
170
Which somatotype was found to be the least likely to commit crime?
Ectomorphs.
171
What did further research by Glueck and Glueck find about offenders?
60% of offenders were mesomorphic.
172
What is the labeling effect in the context of Sheldon’s research?
People labeled as mesomorphic may be treated as criminals, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
173
What factors did Sheldon ignore in his research on criminal behavior?
Social class and environment.
174
Name some other factors that Sheldon did not consider that could influence criminal behaviour.
* Upbringing
* Peer pressure
175
What weaknesses were identified with Sheldon's research?
* Labeling effect - people labelled as mesomorphic may be treated as criminals - becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
* Social class and environment ignored
176
What does Skinner'sx operant conditioning theory say about behaviour?
Behaviour is shaped by consequences
## Footnote
If soemthing good happens after a behaviour - more likely to do it again, if something bad happens after a behaviour - more likely not to do it again.
177
What is positive reinforcement according to Skinner's operant conditioning?
Giving a reward to encourage behaviour
178
Provide an example of positive reinforcement.
A student gets a sticker for completing homework
179
What is negative reinforcement?
Removing something unpleasant to encourage behaviour
180
Provide an example of negative reinforcement.
A car stops beeping when you put on your seatbelt
181
What is punishment in the context of operant conditioning?
A consequence that discourages bad behaviour
182
What is positive punishment?
Adding something unpleasant
183
Provide an example of positive punishment.
A child gets extra chores for misbehaving
184
What is negative punishment?
Taking away something pleasant
185
Provide an example of negative punishment.
A teenager loses phone privileges for staying out late
186
What is the Skinner Box?
A box where a rat gets food by pressing a lever
187
How do teachers use operant conditioning in schools?
By giving rewards like gold stars to encourage learning
188
How do employers apply operant conditioning in workplaces?
By giving bonuses to encourage hard work
189
What are the main concepts of Skinner's operant conditioning?
* Positive reinforcement
* Negative reinforcement
* Punishment - positive and negative
190
What does the Twin Studies Theory suggest about criminality?
Criminality derives from genes - if a parent or child has criminal genes, the child will inherit them as well.
191
How does the Twin Studies Theory explain the link between criminals and their relatives?
Criminals often have relatives who are also criminals
192
What percentage of genetic makeup do MZ (Monozygotic) twins share?
100%
193
What is the implication of MZ twins sharing 100% of their genetic makeup in terms of criminality?
If one twin is a criminal, the other should be as well
194
What percentage of genetic makeup do DZ (Dizygotic) twins share?
50%
195
What is the likelihood of criminality in DZ twins if one twin is a criminal?
There is a lesser chance that the other will be
196
What was the sample size of Christiansen's Twin Study in Denmark?
3,586 twin pairs
197
What was the male concordance rate for MZ twins in Christiansen's study?
35%
198
What was the female concordance rate for MZ twins in Christiansen's study?
21%
199
What was the male concordance rate for DZ twins in Christiansen's study?
13%
200
What was the female concordance rate for DZ twins in Christiansen's study?
8%
201
What does the concordance rate in Christiansen's study support?
The theory that genetics contribute to criminality
202
True or False: The Twin Studies Theory states that the concordance rate should be 100% if criminality is purely genetic.
True
203
What are two factors that could explain the higher concordance rate among MZ twins aside from genetics?
* Shared environments
* Parents treating them the same
204
What are criticisms of Christiansen's twin study findings?
* Concordance rate should be 100% if criminality if purely genetic.
* Higher concordance rate amongst MZ twins could be because of shared environments and parents treating them the same
