Developmental Flashcards
1
Q
epigenetic view (Gottlieb, 2004)
A
proposes that development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional exchange between heredity and the environment
2
Q
critical period
A
a limited period of time during which an organism is biologically prepared to acquire certain behaviors but requires the presence of appropriate environmental stimuli for development to occur
3
Q
sensitive period
A
optimal times for the development of certain human capacities during which the individual is particularly sensitive to environmental influences, but those capacities can also develop to some degree at an earlier or later time
4
Q
canalization
A
traits are highly influenced by genotype and relatively resistant to environmental forces (e.g., motor milestones)
5
Q
range of reaction
A
genotype sets boundaries on the range of possible phenotypes a person may exhibit, while environmental factors determine where in that range the phenotype falls
6
Q
secular trends
A
generational differences in physical growth and development
7
Q
gene-environment correlation
A
refers to associations that are often found between people’s genetic makeup and the environmental circumstances they are exposed to
8
Q
niche-picking
A
tendency of people to seek out environments that are compatible with their genetic makeup
9
Q
heritability index
A
used to estimate the degree to which a particular trait can be attributed to genetic factors;
ranges from 0 to +1.00, with a larger value indicating a higher impact of heredity
10
Q
polygenic
A
characteristics that are determined by multiple gene pairs rather than a single gene pair
(e.g., skin color, eye color, temperament, intelligence, susceptibility to cancer)
11
Q
Huntington’s disease
A
a degenerative central nervous system disorder in which there is a progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain;
caused by a single autosomal dominant gene so a child of an afflicted parent has a 50% chance of inheriting this disorder
12
Q
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
A
recessive gene disorder in which individuals lack the enzyme needed to digest the amino acid phenylalanine which, in its undigested form, acts as a toxic agent in the brain and causes severe mental retardation
13
Q
recessive gene-linked abnormalities
A
PKU, Tay-Sachs disease, sickle-cell anemia, cystic fibrosis
14
Q
Prader-Willi syndrome
A
rare chromosomal abnormality that usually involves a deletion (loss of a segment) on the paternal chromosome 15;
mental retardation, chronic overeating and obesity, hypogonadism, obsessive-compulsive behaviors, distinctive physical features
15
Q
Klinefelter syndrome
A
affects males and is caused by an extra X chromosome;
develop a normal male identity but have incomplete development of secondary sex characteristics and are often infertile
16
Q
Turner syndrome
A
affects females and occurs when all or part of an X chromosome is missing;
females don’t develop secondary sex characteristics, are infertile, and have a short stature, stubby fingers, and a webbed neck
17
Q
Fragile X syndrome
A
due to a weak site on the X chromosome and occurs in males and females, although its negative effects are usually more evident in males who lack the influence of a normal X chromosome;
characterized by moderate to severe mental retardation, facial deformities, and a rapid, staccato speech rhythm
18
Q
teratogens
A
substances and conditions that interfere with normal prenatal development and include drugs, toxins, malnutrition, maternal infections, and maternal stress
19
Q
germinal period
A
extends from conception to implantation (8 to 10 days following conception);
exposure to a teratogen during this period may damage only a few cells and have little or no effect on development; or, alternatively, it may affect many cells and cause the organism’s death
20
Q
embryonic period
A
extends from the end of the 2nd week after conception to the end of the 8th week;
developing organs are most susceptible to major structural defects as the result of exposure to a teratogen (except the CNS, which is vulnerable throughout the embryonic and fetal periods)
21
Q
fetal period
A
extends from the beginning of the 9th week until birth;
organ systems are less affected by teratogens during this period, but exposure can cause impaired organ functioning, delayed growth, and, when it affects the brain, impaired intellectual and emotional functioning
22
Q
effects of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) on development
A
growth retardation, skeletal and organ malformations, impaired motor skills, facial deformities (e.g., small eyes, flat cheeks, thin lips), microcephaly, irritability, hyperactivity, and mental retardation
23
Q
effects of nicotine on development
A
prematurity, low birth weight, respiratory problems, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS);
tend to be less responsive to the environment and more irritable;
during childhood, they may exhibit hyperactivity, a short attention span, and poor academic achievement
24
Q
effects of cocaine on development
A
spontaneous abortion in the first trimester, retarded fetal growth, prematurity, seizures, and malformations in the brain, intestines, heart, and genital-urinary tract;
highly reactive to environmental stimuli and difficult to soothe and exhibit excessive irritability, an abnormally shrill cry, and abnormal reflexes;
concentration and memory impairments, language delays, and social problems
25
effects of rubella on development
low birth weight, heart defects, eye cataracts, deafness, gastrointestinal anomalies, and mental retardation
26
effects of Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) on development
most often transmitted from the mother to infant during delivery;
elevated risk for death, brain damage, seizures, breathing difficulties, visual problems, and skin lesions
27
effects of Cytomegalovirus (CMV) on development
type of herpes virus that can be passed from mother to baby during pregnancy, delivery, or breast-feeding
prenatal infection can cause death;
microcephaly, seizures, cardiovascular disease, neuromuscular defects, hearing loss, and/or mental retardation
28
effects of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) on development
risk of transmission from mother to baby during pregnancy and delivery ranges from 15 to 30% without preventive treatment;
elevated rates of prematurity and are often small for gestational age;
about 20% develop a serious illness in the first year of life and most of these babies die by age 4;
common effects of the disease include delays in motor and cognitive development and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections (toxoplasmosis, pneumonia, candidiasis)
29
effects of prenatal malnutrition on development
1st trimester: spontaneous abortion, neural tube defects, structural abnormalities of major organs;
3rd trimester: low birth weight and low brain size and weight due to smaller neurons, less extensive branching of dendrites, and reduced myelination;
long-term consequences: increased risk for cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and other chronic diseases; delays in motor development; intellectual deficits; and behavioral problems
30
effects of maternal stress on development
spontaneous abortion, premature delivery, and difficult labor;
elevated risk for low birth weight, respiratory problems, higher-than-normal levels of irritability and hyperactivity, certain physical defects (e.g., cleft lip and palate), and sleep and eating problems
31
premature
infant born before 37 weeks;
increased risk linked to lack of prenatal care, malnutrition, younger maternal age (esp younger than age 15), drug use, low SES, and multiple births
32
Small-for-Gestational-Age (SGA)
birth weight below the tenth percentile of the expected weight;
greater risk than premature infants for severe problems, including asphyxia during birth, developmental delays, respiratory disease, and impaired vision and hearing
33
fetal distress
abnormal condition of the fetus immediately before or during birth and is detected by an abnormal slowing of labor, abnormal substances in the amniotic fluid, or an irregular heart rate
34
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model
1) microsystem: child's immediate environment and includes family, peers, and school
2) mesosystem: interconnections between components of the microsystem
3) ecosystem: aspects of the environment that the child is not in direct contact with but is affected by and includes each parent's workplace, neighbors, and community services
4) macrosystem: sociocultural context in which the other systems are embedded and includes aspects of society that affect the child's development (e.g., racism, socioeconomic conditions, culture).
5) chronosystem: represents time and includes the child's life stages and historical events that impact development
35
Rutter's (1985) 6 family characteristics that contribute to the likelihood that a child will develop a psychiatric disorder
severe marital discord, low SES, large family size or overcrowding, parental criminality, maternal psychiatric disorder, and placement of the child outside the home
MMPCLS
36
factors that increase children’s resistance to psychopathology even when they are exposed to multiple risk factors
experienced only a few stressors following birth, were temperamentally “easy” and socially responsive as infants, and had a parent or other caregiver who provided them with consistent care and support
37
microcephaly
small, underdeveloped brain
38
brain development
following birth involves the growth of new dendrites, creation of new synapses (synaptogenesis), and myelination (nerve fibers become covered in myelin that acts as an insulator and increases the speed of nerve impulses)
39
neurogenesis
production of new neurons
40
major infant reflexes
1) Palmar grasp reflex: grasps a finger that is pressed against the surface of his/her palm.
2) Babinski reflex: extends their big toe and fans out their small toe when the sole of the foot is stroked
3) Moro (Startle) reflex: When held in a horizontal position, the infant arches his/her back, extends his/her legs outward, and then brings them back toward the body in response to his/her head being allowed to drop or to a sudden loud noise
4) Rooting: The infant turns his/her head toward the source of stimulation when his/her cheek is stroked near the corner of the mouth
41
major motor milestones at 1 month
Gross Motor Skills: Turns head from side to side when prone;
Fine Motor Skills: Has strong grasp reflex
42
major motor milestones at 3 months
Gross Motor Skills: Holds head erect when sitting but head bobs forward; regards own hand;
Fine Motor Skills: Holds rattle; pulls at clothes; brings objects in hand to mouth
43
major motor milestones at 5 months
Gross Motor Skills: When sitting, holds head erect and steady; reaches and grasps; puts foot to mouth when lying facing upwards
Fine Motor Skills: Plays with toes; takes objects directly to mouth; grasps objects voluntarily
44
major motor milestones at 7 months
Gross Motor Skills: Sits, leaning forward on both hands; stands with help
Fine Motor Skills: Transfers objects from one hand to the other
45
major motor milestones at 9-10 months
Gross Motor Skills: Creeps on hands and knees; pulls self to standing position while holding onto furniture.
Fine Motor Skills: Uses thumb and index finger to grasp
46
major motor milestones at 11-15 months
Gross Motor Skills: Walks holding onto furniture; stands alone; walks without help (12-14 mos.).
Fine Motor Skills: Removes object from tight enclosure; turns pages in book; uses a cup; builds a tower of three or four blocks
47
major motor milestones at 18-24 months
Gross Motor Skills: Runs clumsily; walks up stairs with hand held (18 mos.); walks up stairs alone (24 mos.); kicks and throws ball; uses toilet during the day.
Fine Motor Skills: Uses a spoon; turns doorknobs; builds a tower of six or seven blocks
48
effects of early training (McGraw, 1975)
early training can affect the age at which babies achieve certain motor milestones;
early training does not affect long-term consequences for basic skills but may affect more complex skills (generally more skilled and interested in the activities)
49
gender differences in development
boys do better on motor tasks requiring power and strength, run faster, throw a ball farther;
girls are better at tasks that depend on fine motor skills or flexibility and in some activities that require a combination of good balance and foot movement;
by adolescence, boys excel in terms of most motor skills
50
sleep consolidation
ability to sleep for longer periods of time during the night with shorter periods of daytime sleep
51
sleep regulation
ability to control internal states of arousal in order to fall asleep at bedtime and fall back to sleep after arousal during the night
52
"progressive waiting method” (AKA “Ferberizing”)
parent puts the child to bed; and if the child cries, the parent reassures the child verbally and pats the child on the back but does not pick him/her up
If the child cries again later, the parent waits for a brief period before returning and repeats the same procedure
On subsequent nights, the wait period is gradually increased
53
vision development
prefer facial to non-facial images within a few days following birth; can discriminate the face of their mother or other caregiver from the faces of strangers by one month; detect basic colors by two or three months; have some depth perception by six months; and have visual acuity that comes close to the normal adult level (20/20) by one year
54
hearing development
newborns prefer the human voice to other sounds, recognize their mother’s voice, and can distinguish between the vowels “a” and “i”
Soon after birth, infants exhibit auditory localization (turning their head toward the direction of a sound), but this ability disappears between two to four months and then re-emerges and becomes fully developed by about 12 months of age
55
taste and smell development
newborns can distinguish between all four tastes at birth (bitter, sweet, sour, and salty) and show a preference for sweet tastes
They respond differently to pleasant and unpleasant odors during the first days following birth
56
pain development
infants are sensitive to pain at birth;
some research has shown that early exposure to pain affects future responses to pain
57
presbyopia
a loss of near vision that makes it difficult to focus on close objects
58
presbycusis
a decrease in the ability to hear high-frequency sounds that makes it difficult to understand human speech
59
effects of early vs. later maturation for boys
early: associated with positive consequences including better overall adjustment (positive self-image, greater popularity with peers) and superior athletic skill; linked to an increased risk for drug use and antisocial behavior.
late: more attention-seeking behaviors, lower levels of self-confidence and popularity, and poorer academic achievement
60
effects of early vs. later maturation for girls
early: negative consequences (poorer self-concept, lower academic achievement, and higher risk for MDD, ED, and substance use).
late: higher levels of sociability, popularity, and academic achievement.
negative consequences of early or late maturation are most significant when adolescents view themselves as being different from their peers
61
chronic illness research outcomes
(a) Children with conditions that involve brain functioning have more behavior problems and poorer social functioning
(b) Family functioning, and in particular family cohesion and support for the child, is positively correlated with adjustment in chronically ill children
(c) Parental adjustment is also positively correlated with adjustment in chronically ill children
(d) Chronically ill boys (esp 6 to 11) are at greater risk for behavioral problems than chronically ill girls, while girls are at greater risk for self-reported symptoms of distress
(e) Adolescents are at particularly high risk for not adhering to treatment regimens, in part because of their increased concern about “being different” from their peers
62
characteristics associated with increased risk for drug abuse during adolescence
male gender, low SES, a history of physical or sexual abuse, and low parental warmth and involvement
63
Piaget's Constructivist Theory
children actively construct their understanding of the world, and this ability depends on a combination of biological maturation and experience;
equilibration (the drive toward a state of cognitive equilibrium) provides the underlying motivation for cognitive development.
disequilibrium occurs when there is a discrepancy between reality and the person’s understanding of reality; resolved through adaptation, which consists of 2 complementary processes: assimilation & accommodation
64
assimilation
incorporating and interpreting new information in terms of existing mental schemas
65
accommodation
modifying an existing schema to take into account new information
66
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
4 invariant and universal stages (emerge in the same sequence for all children), with each stage building upon the earlier one;
1) Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years): child learns about objects through sensory information (how objects look, feel, sound, and taste) and motor activity (grasping, hitting)
2) Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): development of the symbolic function, which is the ability to use one thing (words and images) to stand for another and which leads to the increasing use of language, participation in symbolic (pretend) play, and the ability to solve problems mentally
3) Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12 years): development of decentration and reversibility, which enables the child to conserve; thinks logically when dealing with concrete information but cannot process abstract information very well
4) Formal Operational Stage (12 years +): process abstract information ; characterized by hypothetical-deductive reasoning and propositional thought; adolescent egocentrism
67
sensorimotor stage substages
1) Early Reflexive Reactions (birth to 1 month): gain control over and practice reflexive behaviors
2) Primary Reflexive Reactions (1 to 4 months): discover pleasurable actions involving their own bodies by accident and then repeat them
3) Secondary Circular Reactions (4 to 8 months): discover actions involving objects and people in the environment and then reproduce those actions
4) Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8 to 12 months): intentionally combine secondary circular reactions to achieve a goal - object permanence
5) Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 to 18 months): deliberately change an action to discover the consequences of doing so
6) Emergence of Representational Thought (18 to 24 months): begin to develop mental representations that allow them to think about the past and objects that are not present
68
object permanence
understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible
69
deferred imitation
ability to imitate an observed act at a later point in time
70
transductive reasoning
leads preoperational children to believe that two events that occur at the same time are causally related
71
magical thinking
erroneous belief that one has control over objects or events or that thinking about something will actually cause it to occur
72
animism
belief that objects have thoughts, feelings, and other lifelike qualities
73
centration
tendency to focus on one detail of a situation to the neglect of other important features
74
conserve
understand that the underlying properties of an object may not change even when its physical appearance changes
75
transitivity
the ability to mentally sort objects
76
hierarchical classification
the ability to sort objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses based on their similarities and differences
77
hypothetical-deductive reasoning
the ability to arrive at and test alternative explanations for observed events
78
propositional thought
the ability to evaluate the logical validity of verbal assertions without making reference to real-world circumstances
79
imaginary audience
belief that others are as concerned with and critical of the adolescent’s behavior as the adolescent is him/herself
80
personal fable
an adolescent’s belief that he or she is unique and indestructible
81
information processing theories
focus on specific cognitive processes (e.g., memory, attention, comprehension) and emphasize quantitative changes in cognition.
propose that humans process information through logical rules and strategies and have a limited capacity in terms of the nature and amount of information that can be processed.
children become better information processors through a combination of changes in biological systems and experience
82
Neo-Piagetian theories
combine Piaget’s approach with information processing theories;
recognize the roles of both biological and environmental factors in cognitive development;
development is divided into stages that represent qualitative changes in specific cognition processes
83
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
cognition as being dependent on the social, cultural, and historical context;
learning always occurs on 2 levels: first between the child and another person (interpersonal) and then within the child (intrapersonal)
84
zone of proximal development
the gap between what a child can currently do alone and what they can accomplish with help from parents or more competent peers;
learning occurs most rapidly when teaching is within this zone
85
scaffolding
support provided to a child by others and involves modeling, providing physical and verbal prompts, asking questions, etc.
86
infantile amnesia
adults cannot recall anything that occurred prior to 3 or 4 years of age;
attributed to incomplete development of the brain (esp hippocampus) and a lack of language that is needed to encode and store memories in a way that allows them to be retrieved in adulthood
87
memory in infancy and childhood
infants have recognition memory for familiar stimuli soon after birth and cued recall memory by 2 to 3 months;
2 or 3 YOs exhibit episodic memory (can recall experiences that happened weeks or months earlier);
as we age, get increased STM capacity; use of rehearsal and other memory strategies, improvements in metamemory and metacognition
88
memory in adulthood
greatest age-related declines in recent long-term memory followed by working memory;
greater negative effect on episodic memory;
more apparent in unfamiliar tasks;
89
Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory
all mental tasks require two kinds of ability – general ability (“g”) which is common to all intellectual tasks and specific ability (“s”) which is specific to a given task
90
Guilford’s Structure-of-Intellect Theory
using factor analysis, initially derived 120 intellectual abilities (which he later expanded to 180 abilities).
convergent thinking involves the use of rational, logical processes to derive the single correct answer to a problem;
divergent thinking relies on flexibility and non-logical processes to derive multiple solutions to a problem.
91
Horn and Cattell’s Gc-Gf Theory
distinguished between crystallized and fluid intelligence.
crystallized intelligence (Gc): consists of acquired knowledge (e.g., facts and rules) and the ability to apply that knowledge to specific situations;
fluid intelligence (Gf): unaffected by experience and underlies the ability to reason and adapt to new situations
92
Carroll’s Three-Stratum Theory
3 levels (strata) of intelligence:
1) Stratum III represents g (general intelligence);
2) Stratum II consists of 8 broad abilities (fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, general memory, learning);
3) Stratum I consists of specific abilities that are each linked to one of the second stratum abilities
93
Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory of Cognitive Abilities
combines concepts from Horn and Catell’s and Carroll’s theories;
10 broad cognitive abilities and over 70 narrow cognitive abilities
94
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
8 intellectual abilities (linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist);
used simultaneously and complement one another as people solve problems or develop skills
95
Sternberg’s Triarchic Model
3 interacting facets of intelligence:
1) componential (analytical) aspect: methods that are used to process and analyze information
2) experiential (creative) aspect: how unfamiliar circumstances and tasks are dealt with
3) practical (contextual) component: how people respond to their environment
96
genetic influences on intelligence
* Identical twins reared together: .85
* Identical twins reared apart: .67
* Fraternal twins reared together: .58
* Biological siblings reared together: .45
* Biological parent and child (together): .39
* Biological parent and child (apart): .39
* Biological siblings reared apart: .24
* Adoptive parent and child: .18
97
confluence model (Zajonc, 1976)
as the number of children in a family increases, the amount of intellectual stimulation and other important resources decreases, which gives first-borns an advantage in terms of intellectual development
98
“Flynn effect” (Flynn, 1987, 1998)
IQ test scores had consistently increased over the previous 70 years in the United States and other industrialized countries has been attributed to improved nutrition, better education, and other environmental factors
99
gender differences in intelligence
while males and females do not differ significantly in terms of average performance on IQ tests, they differ somewhat in terms of specific abilities.
females do better than males on measures of verbal ability, while males do better on measures of spatial and math skills;
may be affected by environmental factors (boy engage in labor jobs and video games that use these skills)
100
race and ethnicity differences in intelligence
Whites tend to outperform African Americans by about one standard deviation on the Stanford-Binet, Wechsler tests, and other standard IQ tests with a similar gap on achievement tests;
unclear if due to genetic factors, environmental factors, or test bias
101
cohort effects
the confounding effects of educational and other differences between different age groups
102
Seattle Longitudinal Study
younger people are better educated than older people and are more likely to have had experiences that contribute to higher scores on measures of intelligence;
(a) only perceptual speed declined substantially prior to age 60
(b) numeric ability did not show a substantial decline until after age 60
(c) the other 4 abilities were fairly stable until about age 70 or 75
103
aging effects on intelligence
age-related declines on measures of cognitive ability are due largely to declines in the speed and efficiency with which older adults process information;
older adults do better when they are given as much time as they need to complete cognitive tasks;
better on cognitive tasks when they are given training that improves their efficiency
104
synchrony effect
performance times align with peaks in circadian arousal;
older adults in the morning, while younger adults in the evening
105
behaviorist theory of language development
emphasize the role of environmental factors and describe language acquisition as the result of reinforcement and imitation;
caregivers and others use techniques that facilitate language development when talking to young children
106
motherese
talking in simple sentences at a slow pace and with a high-pitched voice
107
recasting
rephrasing a child’s sentence in a different way (e.g., turning the child’s statement into a question)
108
Nativist theories of language development
emphasize the role of innate, biologically determined factors;
children quickly learn to apply very complex grammatical rules to sentences they have never heard before and that these rules are so complex that they cannot be directly taught to or independently discovered by a cognitively immature child
109
language acquisition device (LAD)
enables children who have acquired sufficient vocabulary to combine words into novel but grammatically consistent utterances and understand the meaning of what they hear
110
cognitive theories of language development
view language development as part of cognitive development;
propose that language acquisition is motivated by a child’s desire to express meaning
111
phonemes
smallest units of sound that are understood in a language (d, m, and th)
112
morphemes
smallest units of meaning in a language and include simple words (go, car) and suffixes and prefixes (pre, ed, ing)
113
syntax
the rules of grammar that determine how to order words to form sentences and phrases
114
semantics
the meanings expressed in words and sentences (whether certain words can go with other words and still make sense)
115
pragmatics
knowledge about how to use language to communicate effectively with others and includes being familiar with rules of conversation (taking turns, staying on topic) and knowing how to change language to fit the needs of the listener or situation (how to talk to a baby vs adult)
116
3 distinct baby cries
1) basic cry: usually associated with hunger
2) pain cry
3) angry cry
117
sequence of language development
1) Cooing (beginning at 1 to 2 months): vowel-like sounds
2) Babbling (beginning at 4 to 6 months): repetition of consonant-vowel combinations
3) Echolalia and Expressive Jargon (beginning at 9 months): imitate adult speech sounds and words without an understanding of their meaning followed by vocalizations that sound like sentences but have no meaning
4) First Words (10 to 15 months): usually refer to people, moving objects, social interactions, actions
5) Holophrastic Speech (12 to 18 months): combining a single word with gestures and intonation to express a phrase or sentence
6) Telegraphic Speech (18 to 24 months): two-word sentences that contain the most critical words
7) Rapid Vocabulary Growth (30 to 36 months): use about 1,000 words, ask questions, use sentences containing 3 or 4 words
8) Development of Complex Grammatical Forms (36 to 48 months): correctly use verb “to be,” possessive, prepositions, and construct longer and complex sentences
118
overextension
occurs when a child uses a word too broadly
118
underextension
occurs when a child uses a word too narrowly
118
overregularization
when the child misapplies general rules for plurals or past tense to exceptions "runned"
119
code switching
changing to another language during a conversation
120
functions of code switching
a) If a bilingual speaker cannot express themself adequately in one language they may change to the other language
b) A bilingual speaker may switch to the minority language as a sign of solidarity with members of the minority group
c) Code switching is a way for a bilingual speaker to express their attitude toward the listener
121
gender differences in communication
men talk for longer periods, are more likely to ignore previous remarks made by others, and interrupt more often to gain control of the discussion;
females interrupt to provide support or express interest, use modifiers and qualifiers (e.g., “It’s kind of warm in here”), and attach “tag questions” to statements (e.g., “It’s warm in here, isn’t it?”)
122
temperament
a person’s basic behavioral patterns and style;
believed to have a strong genetic component and to be a contributor to personality;
most stable over the lifespan when the initial measure is administered when the child is at least 2
123
Thomas and Chess (1989) 3 temperament groups
1) Easy children: cheerful, adapt easily to change, have regular feeding and sleeping schedules
2) Slow-to-warm-up children: sad or tense, take time to adapt to change and initially withdraw from new experiences, have variable feeding and sleeping schedules
3) Difficult children: respond to new experiences with irritability, are difficult to soothe, have irregular feeding and sleeping schedules
124
goodness-of-fit model
healthy psychological development depends on a match between the child’s temperament and environmental factors, especially the behaviors of the child’s parents
125
Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
a person’s sexual impulses are centered in a different area of the body in each psychosexual stage of development, and too much or too little gratification of these impulses during a stage can result in fixation at that stage
126
Freud’s 5 stages of psychosexual development
1) Oral Stage (birth to 1 year): Sensual pleasure obtained through the mouth, tongue, and lips. The newly emerging ego directs the baby's sucking activities toward the breast or bottle to satisfy hunger and obtain pleasant stimulation. Fixation may result in habits such as thumb sucking and fingernail biting beginning in childhood and overeating and smoking later in life
2) Anal Stage (1 to 3 years): Pleasure derived from the anal and urethral areas of the body. The child must learn to postpone release of feces and urine, and toilet training becomes a major conflict. Fixation produces anal retentiveness (obsessive punctuality, orderliness, cleanliness) or anal expulsiveness (messiness and disorder)
3) Phallic Stage (3-6 years): derives pleasure from genital stimulation. The Oedipal (boys) or Electra (girls) conflict occurs, which involves experiencing unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and repressing this desire due to fear of punishment by the same-sex parent. If the conflict is resolved successfully, the child identifies with the same-sex parent and the superego is formed
4) Latency Stage (6 years to puberty): Sexual instincts are repressed and dormant. The child works on solidifying the superego by playing and identifying with same-sex children and assimilating social values from society
5) Genital Stage (post-puberty): sexual drive of the early phallic stage is reactivated but now gratified through love relationships outside family. If development proceeded appropriately, this stage is characterized by mature sexuality
127
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
each stage of development as involving a different psychosocial conflict;
placed greater emphasis on the ego and viewed personality development as continuing throughout the lifespan
128
Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
1) Trust vs. Mistrust (birth though first year): Due to warm, responsive parental care and pleasurable sensations while feeding, the infant becomes confident that caregivers are predictable, good, and gratifying. Mistrust of others results when the infant has to wait too long for comfort and is handled harshly.
2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 years): Increasing motor control and cognitive skills lead to greater exploration and independence. Autonomy is fostered when parents offer guided opportunities for free choice and do not overly restrict or shame the child.
3) Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years): Through make-believe play, children learn about the roles and institutions of society and gain insight into the type of person they can become. Initiative (a sense of ambition and responsibility) develops when parents support the child's emerging sense of purpose and direction. Too many parental demands for self-control may lead to excessive guilt.
4) Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years to puberty): Children develop the capacity for productive work and cooperation with others. Inferiority develops when experiences in school, in the peer group, or with parents do not foster feelings of competence and mastery.
5) Identity vs. Identity Confusion (adolescence): transition between childhood and adulthood. The earlier tasks become integrated into a lasting sense of identity. positive outcome: development of a coherent sense of who one is and one's place in society. negative outcome: confusion about identity.
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood): Relationships with others enhance the person's sense of identity and provide gratifying feelings of connectedness. Unsuccessful resolution results in an inability to establish close relationships, an intense fear of rejection, and isolation.
7) Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood): child-rearing, serving as a mentor or teacher, and productive work. Failure to contribute in one or more of these ways results in a sense of stagnation and boredom
8) Ego Integrity vs. Despair (old age): look back at who they are and what they've done. Integrity and wisdom result from the feeling that life was worthwhile; despair and regret result from a sense of dissatisfaction
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Authoritative parenting style
high in both acceptance/responsiveness and demandingness/control;
warm and nurturing, set high standards for their children and expect them to comply with rules. gain control by explaining rules to their children and seeking children’s input into family decisions;
children have the best outcomes - independent, achievement-oriented, friendly, and self-confident
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Authoritarian parenting style
low in acceptance/responsiveness and high in demandingness/control;
insensitive to their children’s feelings and have many rules that they expect their children to obey in an unquestioning manner;
when children are disobedient, respond with punitive measures;
children are often insecure, timid, and unhappy, and they may grow up to be dependent and lacking in motivation
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Permissive parenting style
high in acceptance/responsiveness and low in demandingness/control;
nurturing but fail to assert their authority;
children have difficulty controlling their impulses, ignore rules and regulations, and are not very involved in academic and work activities
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Uninvolved parenting style
low in both acceptance/responsiveness and demandingness/control;
nondemanding and either indifferent toward or rejecting of their children;
children are often noncompliant and demanding, lack self-control, and are prone to antisocial behavior;
characteristics include weak parental supervision, lack of reasonable rules, lax or erratic discipline, and a parent-child relationship characterized by hostility, indifference, or apathy (most predictive of delinquency in adolescence)
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race/ethnicity effects on parenting style
while African American and Hispanic parents are considerably more authoritative than Asian American parents, the children of African American and Hispanic parents, on average, perform more poorly in school;
due, in part, to peer influence: AAs receive little support from their peers for academic achievement, while Asian are encouraged and rewarded by peers for academic excellence
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identity development
refers to “the ways in which individuals view themselves in relation to the world around them”
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Self-Awareness in Infants and Toddlers
18 months: self-recognition as infants begin to recognize themselves in pictures and mirrors - related to cognitive development and social experiences;
19 - 30 months: self-description and evaluation emerge (physical -> active -> social -> psychological self);
30 - 40 months: exhibit emotional responses to wrongdoing. This reaction signals the beginning of the development of a sense of conscience
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gender role identity
a person’s identification as male or female
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Hall and Halberstadt (1980) research on gender identity
by 3 , have an established gender role identity, identify themselves as either a girl or boy, recognize what is expected of them as a girl or boy, notice that others are of the same or opposite sex;
gender role identity has a greater impact than biological sex on children’s self-esteem;
androgyny is associated with the highest levels of self-esteem;
masculinity is associated with higher levels of self-esteem than femininity for both boys and girls
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major theories of gender role identity development
1) Psychodynamic: development occurs when the psychosexual crisis of the phallic stage is resolved by identifying with the same-sex parent
2) Social Learning: focuses on the role of social factors (rewards, punishments children receive for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behaviors), observation and imitation of same-sex models
3) Gender Schema: children develop schemas of masculinity and femininity that they use to perceive and encode information about themselves and others. result of social learning and active cognitive processes
4) Cognitive-Developmental: changes in cognitive processes that underlie gender-role identity development and describes it in 3 stages: a) Gender identity develops at about 2/3 when the child recognizes that they are either male or female. b) gender stability when the child realizes that gender identity is consistent over time c) gender constancy, gender doesn’t change because of a change in appearance, behavior, or situation
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Marcia's (1966) 4 identity statuses
1) identity diffusion: have not undergone an identity crisis and are not committed to an identity
2) identity foreclosure: strong commitment to an identity that was not the outcome of an identity crisis but was suggested by a parent or other
3) identity moratorium: identity crisis, actively exploring different options and beliefs
4) identity achievement: individual resolved their identity crisis and is committed to a particular identity
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Gilligan’s Relational Crisis
at 11/12, girls can experience relational crisis that involves abandoning their own strengths and interests in response to cultural pressure to fit feminine stereotypes and to maintain relationships with others;
experience a “loss of voice” when they realize that their opinions are not valued;
parents, teachers, and others working with adolescent girls must provide them with experiences that help them remain connected to themselves and others
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personality in adulthood
considerable continuity for some traits, especially after age 30;
women experience increases in self-efficacy and assertiveness and a decline in dependence;
men experience increase in nurturance and interpersonal orientation;
agreeableness and conscientiousness continue to increase, while neuroticism decreases
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Levinson’s “Seasons of a Man’s Life”
1) early adult transition (ages 17 to 22): become emotionally and financially independent from their parents and assume adult roles as become involved in college, job, marriage. leads to the formation of “the dream,” (image of an ideal life that guides major life choices)
3) age 30 transition (28 to 33): re-evaluate earlier choices, become more realistic, and revise their life structure. This is followed by a period of “settling down”
4) mid-life transition (40 to 45): experience significant stress and reorganization as they evaluate their successes and failures in terms of “the dream”
5) late adult transition (ages 60 to 65): reconcile “the dream” with the reality of their lives, accept their mortality, and prepare for retirement and old age
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attachment
“strong, affectional tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to experience pleasure and joy when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness during times of stress”
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Harlow and Zimmerman (1959) contact comfort
the pleasant tactile sensation provided by a soft, cuddly parent, is a more important determinant of attachment than feeding
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Bowlby’s (1969) ethological theory
infants and their mothers are biologically programmed for attachment;
infants are endowed with innate attachment-related behaviors (sucking, crying, smiling, cooing), that serve to keep the mother in close proximity and increase the infant’s chance of survival
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Bowlby's 4 stages of attachment that occur during the first 2 years of life
1) preattachment
2) attachment-in-the-making
3) clearcut attachment
4) formation of reciprocal relationships
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signs of attachment
1) Social Referencing (6 months): “read” the emotional reactions of mothers and caregivers, esp in uncertain situations, and use that information to guide their own behaviors (AKA “visual cliff”)
2) Separation Anxiety (6 months): respond with distress to separation from their primary caregiver(s). intensity of separation anxiety peaks 14-18 months and gradually decreases in intensity through preschool
3) Stranger Anxiety (8-10 months): strong negative reaction to strangers. reaches its peak at 18-24 months then gradually declines. intensity is affected by situational factors -less apprehensive of strangers when their mother is nearby
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Strange Situation (Ainsworth, et al., 1978)
baby spends time alone, with his/her mother, and with a stranger
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4 patterns of attachment
1) Secure Attachment: actively explore the environment when alone or with mother. friendly to a stranger when their mother is present but clearly prefer their mother to a stranger and may show distress when their mother leaves and seek physical contact with her when she returns. Mothers are emotionally sensitive and responsive.
2) Anxious/Avoidant Attachment: uninterested in the environment; show little distress when their mother leaves and avoids contact with her when she returns; may or may not be wary of strangers. Mothers are either impatient and nonresponsive or overly responsive, involved, and stimulating.
3) Anxious/Resistant Attachment: anxious when mother is present, become very distressed when she leaves; ambivalent when she returns and may resist her attempts to make physical contact; wary of a stranger even when their mother is present. Mothers are inconsistent in their responses to their child, indifferent and other times enthusiastic.
4) Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment: conflicting reactions to mother that alternate between avoidance/resistance and proximity-seeking, overall behavior is dazed, confused, and apprehensive. observed in children who have been maltreated by their caregiver(s)
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Adult Attachment Interview (Main et al., 1985)
used to investigate the intergenerational transmission of attachment patterns;
interviewees are asked to describe their relationships with their parents during childhood and provide specific memories to support their evaluations
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adult attachment patterns
1) Secure-Autonomous: provide a coherent description of early attachment relationships and value those relationships. don't idealize parents or feel angry about their childhood and can integrate positive and negative experiences. Most of their children have a secure attachment pattern.
2) Dismissing: guarded and defensive when asked about childhood, devalue the importance of attachment relationships. idealize their parents but cannot support their positive evaluations with concrete examples. 3/4ths of their children have an avoidant attachment pattern.
3) Preoccupied: confused and incoherent when describing their early attachment relationships, seem angry, fearful, or passive. describe childhood as involving disappointment, frustrated attempts to please their parents, and role reversals. Most of their children have a resistant/ambivalent attachment pattern.
4) Unresolved: experienced severe trauma and/or early losses, have not adequately resolved the trauma or mourned the loss. tend to have negative and dysfunctional relationships with their own children and are often abusive or neglectful. Their children tend to have a disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern
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3 stages of friendship in childhood
1) Stage 1 (4-7 years): based on similarities and shared activities (play)
2) Stage 2 (8-10 years): based on mutual trust and assistance
3) Level 3 (11+): based on intimacy and loyalty (understand you and don’t deceive or abandon you)
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gender differences on friendship in childhood
female: “enabling style” that serves to increase intimacy and equality between peers - expressing agreement, making suggestions, providing support;
boys: “restrictive style” that tends to interfere with continuing interactions. characterized by bragging, contradicting, and interrupting;
While girls place more importance on the intimate, emotional aspects of their friendships, boys are more interested in sharing activities and interests
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popularity with peers
good social skills – outgoing, exhibit high levels of empathy, frequently share and cooperate with others;
more intelligent, self-confident, and enthusiastic, better able to control their negative emotions
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rejected children
actively disliked and may be bullied by their peers;
disruptive, have poor social skills, and report feeling lonely
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neglected children
shy, have fewer-than-average interactions with peers, rarely engage in disruptive behaviors;
being alone is desirable, and they do not feel particularly lonely or unhappy
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socioemotional selectivity theory (Carstensen,1993)
person’s social relationships decrease in number with increasing age due to a change in social goals that is related to a change in the perception of time left in life from being open-ended to constrained;
social goals have 2 main functions – knowledge acquisition (open-ended) and emotion regulation (constraint)
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early emotion development
1) basic (primary) emotions: interest, disgust, distress – apparent in an infant’s facial expressions; followed by sadness, joy, surprise, anger, and fear
2) self-conscious (social) emotions: envy, empathy, embarrassment; and later, guilt, shame, pride
self-conscious emotions are attributable to several factors including the child’s awareness of rules and ability to evaluate themself against those rules
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aggressive act
“any form of behavior designed to harm or injure a living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment”;
1) hostile: goal is to harm another person
2) instrumental: use aggression as a means to another end
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coercive family interaction cycle
reliance on coercion by both children and their parents to gain compliance and inadequate parental monitoring of children’s activities;
becomes increasingly aggressive over time as children imitate parents’ aggressive behaviors and are reinforced for acting aggressively when a parent eventually “gives in” or “gives up” in response to the child’s aggressive behavior
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cognitive contributions to aggression
believe that it is easier to perform aggressive acts than to inhibit them;
expect aggressive behavior to have positive outcomes;
exhibit little or no remorse after committing an aggressive act
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Dodge and Crick (1990) model of aggression
aggressive children are more likely than nonaggressive children to interpret the ambiguous acts of others as intentionally hostile.
encoding of social cues; interpretation of social cues; response search; response evaluation; and response enactment
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gender differences on aggression
boys become more aggressive, while girls become less aggressive;
boys likely to engage in overt (physical and verbal) forms of aggression, girls commonly engage in relational aggression (teasing, excluding).
prenatal androgen exposure (greater in boys than girls) increases the predisposition to aggression, and environmental factors then determine whether or not the potential for aggression is realized
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reducing aggression
teaching children alternative ways of resolving conflicts; using cognitive strategies to help them accurately interpret the statements and behaviors of others; and empathy training, in which children are encouraged to identify the feelings of others and express their own feelings in non-aggressive ways
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effects of divorce on parents
many exhibit a “diminished capacity to parent” that continues for about 2 years after the divorce;
ordinary household routines are disrupted, parents become inconsistent in their discipline and vacillate between being detached and highly punitive
mothers may show less affection toward their children, especially their sons, and may start to treat their sons more harshly;
fathers become more indulgent and permissive
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effects of divorce on children
experience painful emotions and exhibit behavioral problems during the period surrounding their parents’ divorce;
age - preschool children have most short-term negative outcomes as they cannot understand the reasons for the divorce, so blame self for it, revert to immature behaviors, develop intense separation anxiety. Long-term worse for older children - painful memories and fears about their own ability to have a happy marriage;
gender - boys experience more severe short- and long-term consequences than girls - increased noncompliance, demandingness, hostility. girls likely to exhibit withdrawal, self-criticism, internalizing behaviors
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“sleeper effect”
girls who were in preschool or elementary school at the time of the separation may have few problems initially but, as adolescents, exhibit noncompliance, low self-esteem, emotional problems, and antisocial behavior;
more likely than those from intact families to marry young, be pregnant prior to marriage, and choose a psychologically unstable husband
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better outcomes for children of divorce
children maintain a positive relationship with both parents, have frequent contact with the noncustodial parent, extended family is available as a support system, school environment is positive, the divorce does not cause substantial upheaval in the children’s daily routines;
children who have serious adjustment problems following the divorce of their parents are often those who already had difficulties before the divorce
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effects of stepparents
children living with a biological parent and stepparent have worse outcomes than those living with both biological parents;
often reduced when the effects of certain antecedent factors (e.g., family instability, child’s preexisting adjustment problems) are controlled and when the custodial parent has an authoritative parenting style and the stepparent is warm and involved and supports the custodial parent’s decisions without trying to exert their own control over the child
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age factors that impact effects of stepparents
younger children accept stepparents more readily than older children and adolescents;
problems most severe when remarriage occurs when child is early adolescence, as also dealing with normal problems of adolescence;
addition of a stepfather for younger boys reduces anxiety, anger, and other adjustment problems;
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gay or lesbian parents
does not increase the risk for negative developmental outcomes in children;
children do not differ in terms of gender identity, sexual orientation, personality characteristics, psychological well-being, or academic achievement;
do not differ on measures of adjustment and are no more likely to be homosexual than children of heterosexual parents
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effects of maternal employment
in families where both parents are employed, maternal employment is associated with greater life satisfaction for both low- and middle-income mothers as long as the mother’s employment status is consistent with her and her partner’s preferences;
children of employed mothers tend to have higher levels of self-esteem, better family and peer relations, less gender-stereotyped in their beliefs and attitudes;
daughters of employed mothers have higher levels of emotional maturity, independence, assertiveness, career and achievement orientation;
in traditional dual-earner families, children exhibit more anxiety and depression, rate themselves lower in peer acceptance and school achievement
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father-child relationships
spend considerably less time with their children than mothers do;
spend more time with children in play activities. the play tends to be “rough-and-tumble” while maternal interactions revolve around caregiving
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sibling relationships
most interactions between young siblings involve prosocial, play-oriented activities;
middle childhood - siblings rely on each other for support and companionship, but sibling rivalry increases (most intense among same gender who are 1.5-3 years apart)
adolescence - spend less time together as peer relationships become more important, begin to view each other as equals;
later adulthood - vary considerably. had a close relationship as children are likely to be even closer in late adulthood
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effects of daycare
high-quality daycare (provides sensitive caregiving, language and cognitive stimulation) has no negative effects on children;
may improve IQ of low-income children;
while some children who attend daycare may be less compliant with adults and more aggressive, they also are more self-sufficient, cooperative with peers, adaptable to new social situations;
infant’s attachment security affected more by quality of the mother-child relationship than attending daycare
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Montessori Method
the purpose of education is to provide an environment that facilitates a child’s natural initiative, abilities, and interests;
1) Practical life skills: opportunities to develop practical skills to nurture independence and self-reliance (serving food, dishes, sweeping)
2) Sensory skills: special materials and activities are used (discriminate between different sounds, colors, textures)
3) Language and Math Skills: alphabet is introduced with individual sandpaper letters that children trace, and beads, geometric shapes, and other physical materials are used to introduce children to abstract number concepts
4) Physical, social, and cultural skills:individualized physical activities and activities designed to promote shared responsibility (caring for plants and animals), respect, tolerance, compassion)
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Head Start
preparing preschool children from low SES backgrounds for school by providing a combination of educational programs, health services, opportunities for parent involvement, and social services;
less likely to be placed in special education classes, have better attitudes toward school, have higher achievement test scores, less likely to repeat a grade and drop out of high school;
lower risk for teen pregnancy, unemployment, and committing criminal acts
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teacher behaviors
from elementary through graduate school, male students are more likely to receive attention, praise, and feedback from teachers that fosters academic achievement;
teachers are more likely to describe a “good male student” as active, aggressive, assertive, adventurous, curious, energetic, independent, and inventive and “a good female student” as calm, conscientious, appreciative, cooperative, sensitive, dependable, mature, and mannerly
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Piaget’s theory of moral development
1) premoral stage (birth to about 5 years): children have limited understanding of rules and other aspects of morality
2) heteronomous stage (which begins at about age 5 or 6): children view rules as absolute and unchangeable and believe in imminent justice (violations of rules inevitably lead to punishment). base judgments primarily on the act’s consequences (more negative the consequences, worse the act)
3) autonomous stage (begins at about age 10 or 11): recognize that rules are determined by agreement between individuals and, consequently, are alterable. consider the intentions of the actor to be most important
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“Heinz dilemma”
better to steal a drug to save a person’s life or to obey the law by not stealing the drug and thereby risk the person’s life
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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Level I, Preconventional
o Stage 1, Punishment and Obedience Orientation: The correct act is the one that allows the person to avoid punishment.
o Stage 2, Instrumental Hedonistic Orientation: The correct act is the one that provides the person with rewards or satisfies their needs.
Level II, Conventional
o Stage 3, “Good Boy-Good Girl” Orientation: The correct act is the one that is approved of or liked by others.
o Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation: The correct act is the one that is consistent with laws and rules set by legitimate authorities.
Level III, Postconventional
o Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights Orientation: The correct act is the one that is consistent with democratically chosen laws which can be changed for a valid reason.
o Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation: The correct act is the one that is consistent with fundamental universal ethical principles (esp justice and fairness).
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age kids lie intentionally, according to Piaget
7 or 8
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bilateral otitis media
inflammation of the left and right middle ear which impacts hearing loss
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Kubler-Ross (1969) 5 stages when faced with their own death
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
DABDA
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Identity process theory
adjustment to aging can be conceptualized as involving 3 processes
1) identity assimilation (maintaining self-consistency)
2) identity accommodation (making changes in the self)
3) identity balance (maintaining a sense of self but changing when necessary)
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age children generally begin to understand the concept of death
between 7 and 9
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most valid predictor of post-divorce adjustment in children two years after the divorce
continued exposure of children to parental conflict -- whether it be while their parents are married, during the divorce process, or after a divorce
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inductive vs deductive reasoning
inductive reasoning - reasoning from a particular fact to a general rule;
deductive reasoning - reasoning from a general law to a particular case
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symbolic thought
understanding that one thing can stand for another
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Speech-act theory
understanding the detail of what is being said or uttered, people will understand and communicate better with others
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verbal utterance
defined in terms of its content, the intention of the speaker, and the effect on the listener
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locutionary act
an utterance of a meaningful sentence or statement, the act of saying something
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illocutionary act
intends to communicate - the way in which something is said
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perlocutionary act
seeks to change behavior - the effect of what was said on the listener or speech acts that affect the feelings, thoughts or actions of either the speaker or the listener
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propositional act
something referenced, but no communication may be intended
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increased risk for prematurity
lack of prenatal care, malnutrition, younger maternal age (especially younger than age 15), drug use, low SES, and multiple gestations;
majority of premature infants survive; and, with appropriate medical attention and a supportive environment, those without significant abnormalities often catch up to full-time peers in terms of cognitive, language, and social skills by 2 or 3
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infants develop depth perception in a predictable sequence
1) kinetic: based on movements of objects in the environment or the body (3 weeks)
2) binocular: 2-3 months
3) pictorial: three-dimensional (7 months)
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Fanaticism
person becomes overzealous in identification to a particular role to the point that he or she is intolerant of others
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Repudiation
adolescent compensates for a lack of identity by fusing with a group that eagerly provides its members with details of an identity
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equifinality
a final state or given outcome may be reached from different initial conditions and in different ways
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multifinality
phenomenon in which similar initial conditions may lead to different outcomes
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reminiscence bump
increased number of autobiographical memories older adults have for events that happened between the ages of 15-25
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gender stability
understanding that one's gender does not change over time
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gender constancy
understanding that gender stays the same despite changes in appearance;
achieved by age 5 or 6
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Dewey
constructivist theory of learning;
emphasizes the experiential aspects of learning, proposing learning is the result of experiences and attempts to make sense of those experiences;
each learner individually and socially constructs meaning or knowledge for themselves as he or she learns;
focus is on the learner
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For children of divorce, frequent visitation with the noncustodial father usually results in
fewer behavioral problems and higher academic achievement if the noncustodial father is supportive and authoritative
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drug most often abused by teenagers is
alcohol
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Maslow's 5 basic needs
arranged in hierarchical order of importance, are physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization
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children's ethnic perspective-taking ability (EPTA) stages
1) 3-4: begin to describe ethnicity in terms of physical traits (e.g. skin color, clothes, physical features)
2) 5-9: accurately apply ethnic labels to themselves and others
3) 7-12: express a social perspective of ethnicity, including prejudice
4) 10-15: begin to immerse themselves into their ethnic group
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Delinquency in adolescence is most associated with
weak parental supervision and parental rejection; hostile relationship between parent and adolescent
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separation anxiety timeline
sometimes begins as early as 5 or 6 months;
typically has its onset at 8 or 9 months;
rises dramatically until the age of 18 months, then gradually falls off until it becomes negligible between the ages of 24-36 months
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Research on infants who were raised by multiple changing caregivers until at least two years old were found to
maternal deprivation in the first few years of life doesn't necessarily prevent children from developing strong attachments to their adopted parents - even when the adoption occurs as late as 4 to 6 years of age;
a strong attachment was more likely to develop among adopted children than children who were restored to their biological parents;
children showed "overfriendliness" toward unfamiliar adults, had more difficulties with peers, and had fewer close relationships than non-institutionalized children
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effective interventions for aggressive children
teach aggressive children alternative, nonaggressive, prosocial behaviors, which is a component of social-skills training
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adolescents who successfully resolve the identity vs. identity confusion psychosocial conflict will exhibit
fidelity
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terminal drop
refers to findings indicating in the months before death, a substantial drop in all facets of intelligence occurs
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most associated with problem adolescent drug use
alienation, impulsivity, and subjective distress
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esearch suggests that minority adolescents score higher than white adolescents in which stage of ethnic identity development
foreclosure
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stranger anxiety timeline
first appears in infants between 8 and 10 months of age;
intensity of stranger anxiety typically peaks at about 18 months of age and then gradually declines during the end of the second year
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rates of divorce are highest for women who
marry at a younger age, have a lower level of education, had a child when she got married, have a lower income or live in a community with low family income, or have no religious affiliation
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most predictive of retirement satisfaction
engaged in activities such as paid work, volunteering, or caregiving activities, have higher levels of subjective well-being than those who are unengaged - independent of age, sex, race, marital status, education, mental and physical health, and income
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Marfan syndrome and Von Willebrand disease
caused by an autosomal dominant gene;
Marfan: blood clotting defects - most common hereditary bleeding disorder (1% of population)
