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PSYC514 > Developmental psych - AS > Flashcards

Developmental psych - AS Flashcards

1
Q

Define cognition

A

The activity of knowing. The mental processes by which we acquire information and use it.

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2
Q

What is meant by the term ‘constructivist theory’?

A

If children are to know something then they must construct that knowledge themselves

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3
Q

Define equilibrium

A

A harmonious balance between thought and the environment

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4
Q

All schemes are created through two developmental processes, what are these processes?

A

Organisation - existing schemes are combined to form more complex ones.

Adaptation - Adjusting to demands of the environment through two activities.

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5
Q

Breifly desrcibe Piagetian development

A

Children seek and assimilate new experiences, accomodate their cognitive structures to them, and organise what they know into more complex schemes.

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6
Q

What are the names and ages of Piagets stages of cognitive development?

A

Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Preoperational (2-6 years)
Concrete operational (7-12 years)
Formal operational (12 years - adult)

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7
Q

Briefly explain what is meant by the Sensorimotor stage, and what it entails?

A

Development of the ability to organise and coordinate sensations with physical movements. Consists of six substages;
1. Simple reflexes (birth to 1 month)
2. Primary circular reactions (1 to 4 months)
3. Secondary circular reactions (4 to 8 months)
4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months)
5. Tertiary circular reactions (12 to 18 months)
6. Beginnings of representational thought (18-24 months)

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8
Q

Why is imitation important?

A

An adaptive process for the acquisition of knowledge

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9
Q

Define deferred imitation

A

The ability to reproduce the behaviour of an absent person, develops with mental imagery (18-24 months old)

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10
Q

Define object permenance

A

The understanding that an object still exists despite it not being visible

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11
Q

Robert Fantz developed the preferential looking paradigm, which suggests what?

A

If babies prefer to look at one of two stimuli, we can infer that they can discriminate between them

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12
Q

What is meant by habituation?

A

Infants prefer to look at novel stimuli, once they are familiar this is habituated and loses their attention.

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13
Q

What is meant by the violation of expectation paradigm?

A

If something unexpected happens, children will look longer.

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14
Q

According to Piaget, how do babies acquire knowledge?

A

Through their actions

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15
Q

According to Baillargeon;Spelke;Wynn, how do babies acquire knowledge?

A

Infants are born with principles to guide their perception
Nativist - ie some innate object knowledge

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16
Q

According to Diamond, how do babies acquire knowledge?

A

Co-ordinating perception and action may take some time

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17
Q

Briefly explain what is meant by the pre-operational stage?

A
  • Characterised by development of internalised representations: Imitation, pretend play, imagery (visualing something in mind)
  • Important distinction between: symbols (personalised representation) and signs (conventional representations)
  • Preoperational child more tied to symbols than signs
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18
Q

What three limitations are evident within the pre-operational stage?

A

Egocentrism
Centration
Reversibility

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19
Q

What task can be performed to understand egocentrism in children?

A

Three mountains task

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20
Q

What is meant by centration (pre-operational stage)?

A

Tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation and ignore other aspects.
Tendency to focus on static states rather than transformations.

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21
Q

How can centration be understood through the eyes of a child?

A

Two glasses of equal appearance with same amount of liquid. One glass poured into a different sized glass (taller eg), child now thinks that glass has more liquid.

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22
Q

What is meant by transivity, and which staged children have an issue with this ability?

A

A problem requiring a single model showing the relationship between different elements. Pre-operational children have difficulty with this.

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23
Q

Briefly explain what is meant by the concrete operational stage?

A

Acquisition of operations
- multiple aspects of a situation
- Represent dynamic as well as static
- Represent transformations
- Understand the reversibility of transformations

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24
Q

What is a limitation which characterises concrete operational thinking?

A

Logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning, but only in concrete circumstances.
Unable to reason about abstract situations.
Limited ability to reason in a hypothetical way.

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25
Q

Briefly explain what is meant by the formal operational stage?

A

Ability for both abstract and logical thought.

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26
Q

How do children over the age of 12 years differ in solving a hypothetico-deductive reasoning task (eg how fast the pendulum swings?- Piaget & Inhelder)

A

They systematically varied one factor at a time, testing each variable seperately and (if necessary) in combination.

27
Q

How do concrete operational thinkers differ from formal operational thinkers in Piaget & Inhelders combination of chemicals problem?

A

Concrete operational will stop when the desired outcome is acheived, even if there is a redundant element.
Formal operational thinkers possess a combinatorial schema - they keep trying till they do not have the redundant element.

28
Q

What is the defintion of each of the following styles of abstract thinking;
- Idealistic thinking
- Meta-cognition
- Hypothetical thinking

A
  • Idealistic: Adolescents can think about other realities
  • Meta cognition: I was thinking about thinking about what i was thinking about…
  • Hypothetical thinking: If people could know the future they would be happier than they are now
29
Q

Age at which problems are solved may depend on what…?

A
  • Amount of experience they have with a problem (or related problems)
  • Whether it occurs in a familiar context
  • Ease of drawing analogies with better understood problems
30
Q

What did Hughes (1975) use as an alternative to the three mountains task?

A

The policemen task - asked children to tell the naughty boy where to hide from the two policement each put at a particular point on a cross.

31
Q

Flavell (1981) suggests there are two levels of perspective taking, what are these?

A

Level 1 - Knowing whether someone can see something
Level 2 - Knowing what a person can see

32
Q

Vygotsky (1896-1934) proposed a sociocultural theory of development. Briefly explain this.

A
  • Cognitive development occurs through social interaction
  • Psychological functioning is mediated by cultural tools, including language.
  • Introduced the concept of Zone of Proximal Development (the difference between what a child can do and what they have the potential to do)
  • Scaffolding (development occurs through the internalisation of socially shared processes)
33
Q

What does Theory of Mind mean?

A

Childrens understanding that other people have beliefs, and their beliefs guide their behaviour.

34
Q

What task can show a childs theory of mind (Wimmer & Perner, 1983)?

A

The sally ann task: Box, basket, red ball. Ball placed in basket by sally who then leaves the room, ann moves the ball to the box, where do children think Sally will look for the ball?

35
Q

When do children perform better on a false belief task, and why is this?

A

When they are verbally told what happened, rather than seeing it performed with toys (Zaitchik, 1991).
Less information to inhibit.

36
Q

Explain how Riggs et al (1998) studied whether social understanding depends on general abilities?

A

Thinking about a false belief depends on an ability to imagine alternatives to reality.
Sally and Peter. Peter goes to bed, sally to shops. Peter phoned to put out a fire.
Control question: Does sally know where peter is?
Counterfactual question: If there had been no fire, where would Peter be?
False belief: Where does Sally think Peter is?

37
Q

What did Guarjardo et al (2004) find when given 3,4,5 year olds 7 ToM tasks and a counterfactual generation task

A

Correlation between ToM performance and the number of counterfactuals generated, even after controlling for age and language ability.

38
Q

When do children perform better on false belief tasks?

A
  • They have daily interaction with more adults (Lewis, 1996)
  • Their mothers talk to them about psychological states (Dunn et al, 1991) - measured a year later.
  • Children perform better if they have older siblings (Jenkins & Ashington, 1996) BUT children with more siblings have more interaction with adults, and it is the latter that makes a difference (Lewis et al, 1996)
39
Q

Wu & Keysar (2007) performed a study on culture and perspective taking, briefly describe study.

A

Study of adult participants. Director sees the grid on the right and gives instructions to the subject who sees the grid on the left - instructs subject to move item.
Compared to Non-Asian Americans, Chinese American participants spent less time looking at the block hidden to the director and were faster to respond.

40
Q

Define hindsight bias (Fischoff et al, 1975)

A

Inclination to see events that have already occured as being more predictable than they were before they took place.

41
Q

Define moral behaviour

A

The knowledge of what is wrong and what is right. A desire to do what is right (conscience)

42
Q

What did Piaget find differed between ages when children were presented with a moral dilemma task (spilling ink)?

A

6 and 7 year olds base their judgements on the consequences.
Older children based their judgements on intent.

43
Q

What are Piagets three stages of moral development?

A
  1. Amoral (No awareness of rules)
  2. Moral realist - Heteronomous (rules from authority cannot be questioned or challenged)
  3. Moral relativist/subjectivist - autonomous (rules are not fixed/absolute, they can be questioned)
44
Q

What are the three stages in Kohlbergs stage theory?

A
  1. Preconvential (preoperational) - Behaviour is based on self interest and reciept of rewards and punishments
  2. Conventional (concrete operations) - Awareness of and compliance with rules
  3. Post-conventional (formal operations) - Appreciates that laws are rules are relative. Views an individuals rights as important. Judges that harm is wrong even if not illegal.
45
Q

Nunner-Winkler & Sodian (1988) evaluated Kohlbergs stage theory and found what?

A

(Imagine a girl steals sweets, how would she feel afterwards?)
- Younger response associated with self interest (she would feel good)
- Older response associated with rule breaking (She would feel bad)

46
Q

Eisenberg (1986) studied childrens reasoning outside of a rule based system, what were the results?

A

(Child going to a birthday party with a friends cake, sees someone has fallen. If they stop and help they will miss the party [cake], what should she do?)

3/4 year olds say she should continue to the party.
5 year olds say she should stop.
Shift is consistent with the development of the ability to represent others beliefs.

47
Q

Give an example of a moral rule and a social rule

A

Moral = You shouldn’t steal
Social = Boys shouldn’t wear skirts

48
Q

Smetana & Braeges (1990) assessed how children distinguish between moral and social rules, what were the results?

A

3 year olds judged that moral infractions are wrong - more than just rules
4 year olds judged that moral infractions are wrong, even if an adult doesn’t see them.

49
Q

What did Eisenberg et al (1990) find young children were sensitive to, and how?

A

Young children are sensitive to suffering. 4 year olds heart rates increase when they see another child in distress and slows down when they are given the opportunity to help.

50
Q

How does culture differ in Kohlbergs theory?

A

Different cultures are less advanced on the scale. His scale and scoring may not apply to other cultures that place;
- Less emphasis on individual rights
- More emphasis on maintaining harmony
- More emphasis on obedience

51
Q

How does gender differ in Kohlbergs theory?

A

Kohlbergs theory is oriented to males.
Females score lower because they place more value on caring and looking after others than individual rights.

52
Q

What are the four phases of attachment?

A
  1. A social phase - birth to six weeks - Usually positive responses to a range of stimuli
  2. Indiscriminate attachment phase - 6 weeks to 6 months - Preference for social stimulation
  3. Specific attachment phase - 7 to 9 months - Attachment to a single close carer
  4. Multiple attachment phase -9 to 18 months - protest at seperation from multiple people
53
Q

What are the three types of theories of attachment?

A
  • Psychoanalytic
  • Learning
  • Ethological
54
Q

Describe psychoanalytic theory of attachment

A

Freud - young infants are ‘oral’ creatures - attached to object that provides that oral stimulation

55
Q

Describe learning theory of attachment

A

Reinforcers for child (eg food, warmth). Positive associations with caregiver.

56
Q

Describe ethological theory of attachment

A

Relationship between human attachment and its evolutionary underpinnings. Babies provide strong reinforcement for carers to maintain social bonds.

57
Q

What is the difference between an altricial species and a precocial species?

A

Atricial species require a primary caregiver. Precocial species do not require a caregiver.

58
Q

What are the three types of attachment style suggested by Ainsworths strange situation task?

A

Secure.
Resistant.
Avoidant.

59
Q

If a child has a secure attachment style, what behaviour can be expected? What percentage of North American infants had this sort of attachment?

A

Infant welcomes caregiver. Visibly upset by seperations. Uses caregiver as a secure base from which to explore.

65%

60
Q

If a child has a resistant attachment style, what behaviour can be expected? What percentage of North American infants had this sort of attachment?

A

Infant requires consistent contact with caregiver, very distressed by seperations. Ambivalent/angry reaction to caregiver return. Explores very little when caregiver is present. Wary of strangers, even in presence of caregiver.

10%.

61
Q

If a child has a avoidant attachment style, what behaviour can be expected? What percentage of North American infants had this sort of attachment?

A

Infant shows little interest in contact with caregiver, little distress on seperation from caregiver. Readily explores without attention to secure base of caregiver. Sometimes can be sociable with strangers (not always).
20%.

62
Q

Main and Solomon (1990) were inspired to add another attachment style to the original classification system, name and describe this. What percentage of North American children have this style of attachment?

A

Disorganised/disoriented - Infant shows variable interest in caregiver, often show most distress in Strange situation environment. May be dazed or freeze on being reunited. Variable combination of avoidant and resistant attachment patterns.

5%.

63
Q

One secure attachment has what reassuing benefit?

A

One secure attachment relationship can provide a buffer against other insecure relationships.

PSYC514 (5 decks)

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