Division to unity: the Federal Republic of Germany, 1949-1991 Flashcards
(205 cards)
1
Q
What was the Basic Law (Grundgesetz) of May 1949?
A
It created a democratic, federal state (FRG) guarded by the Federal Constitutional Court. It guaranteed freedom of expression, assembly, association, and movement, and committed to work for German unity.
The Basic Law serves as the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany.
2
Q
How did FRG citizenship work under the Basic Law?
A
Any German could settle in the FRG and automatically receive citizenship, welfare benefits, and education. Over 3 million Germans fled from Soviet territories to the FRG between 1949 and 1961.
This facilitated the integration of displaced persons after WWII.
3
Q
How did the FRG’s electoral system work according to the 1949 constitution?
A
Citizens had two votes (party and constituency representative). It was a mix of proportional representation and ‘first past the post’, with a 5% minimum vote threshold to enter the Bundestag.
4
Q
What was the role of the Bundestag?
A
Passed legislation and controlled government.
5
Q
What was the role of the Bundesrat?
A
Represented state governments; could amend, delay, or veto laws affecting the Länder.
6
Q
How was the Federal President elected?
A
Elected by the Federal Convention; largely ceremonial, representing the FRG inside and outside the country, with some reserve powers.
7
Q
Who was Konrad Adenauer?
A
Former Mayor of Cologne, anti-Nazi, founder of the CDU, and FRG’s first Chancellor from 1949 to 1963.
8
Q
What happened in the 1949 election in West Germany?
A
CDU/CSU secured 31% of the vote, winning a majority of one in the Bundestag. Adenauer formed a coalition with smaller parties.
9
Q
How did CDU/CSU’s electoral performance improve under Adenauer?
A
1953 elections: Increased support. 1957 elections: 50.2% of the vote — gained absolute majority.
10
Q
What was Adenauer’s governing style often described as?
A
‘Chancellor democracy’ — he dominated political life, held coalitions together, and acted as his own Foreign Minister.
11
Q
How did Adenauer reduce extremist political threats?
A
Banned the right-wing Socialist Reich Party (SRP) in 1952 and the left-wing Communist KPD in 1956 via the Constitutional Court.
12
Q
What was the 5% rule and why was it important?
A
Parties needed at least 5% of votes to win seats in the Bundestag, helping avoid fragmentation like during Weimar Germany.
13
Q
What role did Hans Globke play in Adenauer’s government?
A
Secretary of State, key organiser of CDU/CSU, former author of Nazi-era legal commentaries.
14
Q
How did Adenauer use former Nazis in the FRG?
A
1951 Reinstatement Act: Re-employed ex-Nazis into civil service. 40–80% of officials (including judiciary) were former NSDAP members.
15
Q
Who was Adenauer’s Minister for Refugees?
A
Theodor Oberländer, forced to resign in May 1960.
16
Q
How did Adenauer manage Nazi pasts while maintaining international credibility?
A
Paid 3 billion DM compensation to Israel in 1952 but generally downplayed Nazi pasts domestically.
17
Q
Who was Kurt Schumacher?
A
SPD leader (1946–1952), anti-Nazi, opposed Adenauer’s Westward alignment and prioritised unrealistic German reunification.
18
Q
Why was the SPD weak in opposition during Adenauer’s Chancellorship?
A
Seen as ‘semi-Communist’ by CDU, opposed popular Westward alignment, suffered internal divisions, and led by colourless Erich Ollenhauer.
19
Q
What parties dominated West German politics by 1953?
A
CDU/CSU, SPD, and FDP, aided by the 5% rule limiting smaller parties.
20
Q
What was the FDP?
A
Free Democratic Party — liberal, held the balance of power in coalitions, served in Adenauer’s government 1949–1956 and 1961–1966.
21
Q
What happened to the KPD in West Germany?
A
Won 5.7% of the vote in 1949, vote share fell to 2.2% in 1953, banned in 1956 for being ‘non-democratic’.
22
Q
What major problems did Adenauer’s government face after WWII?
A
Rebuilding devastated towns, accommodating bombing victims, integrating refugees and expellees, and compensating victims of Nazi crimes.
23
Q
What did the 1950 Construction Law achieve?
A
Set up generous grants to Länder and cities for building projects, resulting in over 4 million new dwellings by 1957.
24
Q
How were refugees and expellees reintegrated under Adenauer?
A
Government programmes ensured successful reintegration. By the 1957 election, the BHE failed to pass the 5% hurdle and lost Bundestag representation.
25
What was the 1953 Equalisation of Burdens Act?
Provided compensation for victims of wartime bombing and Nazi crimes, with claims verified by a new government committee.
26
How did Adenauer promote social stability and economic growth?
Collective Bargaining Law allowed workers’ participation. Workers gained representation in management, and the Pensions Act introduced index-linked pensions.
27
Why did Adenauer argue for the creation of the Bundeswehr from 1950?
To maintain domestic control and contribute to Western European defence against Communism.
28
When was the Bundeswehr officially created?
Created in 1956.
29
Who opposed the creation of the Bundeswehr?
Opposed by the SPD.
30
What measures ensured the Bundeswehr did not gain political influence?
A Parliamentary Chief Commissioner was appointed and an advisory committee reviewed senior officer appointments.
31
What was Adenauer’s 'magnet theory'?
West Germany's success would attract East German citizens, leading to the collapse of the GDR without direct reunification efforts.
32
What major international alliances did West Germany join under Adenauer?
1955: Admitted to NATO. 1957: Founder member of the EEC. 1957: Joined the European Defence Community.
33
When and why was NATO formed?
Formed in April 1949 by Western capitalist countries led by the USA.
34
What was the USSR’s response to NATO?
Formation of the Warsaw Pact in 1955 after West Germany joined NATO.
35
What percentage of the vote did Adenauer win in the 1957 election?
50.2%, achieving an absolute majority.
36
What problems did Adenauer face during his third term (1957–1963)?
FDP split, SPD reforms via Bad Godesberg Programme, failed presidential attempt, and criticism after the Berlin Wall erected.
37
How did the 1961 Bundestag election weaken Adenauer’s position?
CDU/CSU vote fell to 46%, FDP vote rose, and Adenauer negotiated a coalition on the condition he would resign after two years.
38
What was the Bad Godesberg Programme (1959)?
SPD abandoned Marxist principles, accepted capitalism and Western integration to broaden its appeal.
39
What was the Spiegel Affair (1962)?
Defence Minister ordered arrest of Der Spiegel editors, leading to public outcry and Adenauer’s resignation.
40
How stable was West German democracy by 1963?
Stable constitution; however, many citizens adopted 'ohne mich' attitudes, preferring private life over politics.
41
What was Adenauer’s 1957 election slogan?
'Keine Experimente' ('No experiments').
42
What criticisms were made of Adenauer’s democracy?
Inflexibility towards political dissent and supported harsh police action during Schwabing Riots.
43
What were the Schwabing Riots (1962)?
Police crackdown on buskers escalated into youth clashes with Munich police.
44
In what ways did the Spiegel Affair help West German democracy?
Helped destroy the authoritarian 'Obrigkeitsstaat' values and strengthened the FRG as a modern liberal democracy.
45
Who succeeded Adenauer as Chancellor of West Germany and when?
Ludwig Erhard in October 1963.
46
What percentage of the vote did the CDU/CSU gain in the 1965 election under Erhard?
47.6%.
47
What economic issues led to Erhard’s downfall?
Recession, inflation at 4%, raised interest rates, unpopular proposals for extra working hours.
48
Why did the FDP resign from Erhard’s coalition in 1966?
Disagreement over handling the recession; CDU/CSU wanted tax increases, FDP wanted spending cuts.
49
When did Erhard resign as Chancellor?
November 1966.
50
Who replaced Erhard as Chancellor and what was his political background?
Kurt Georg Kiesinger, a former Nazi Party member and CDU politician.
51
What was the 'grand coalition' and when was it formed?
An alliance between CDU/CSU and SPD, formed in December 1966 under Kiesinger.
52
What controversial law did the Bundestag pass in May 1968?
The Emergency Law.
53
What was the NPD and when was it founded?
The National Democratic Party, a far-right party founded in 1964.
54
How successful was the NPD in the 1960s?
Won 8 seats in Hesse and 15 in Bavaria in 1965; gained 48 seats in six Länder by 1967-68.
55
What major protest occurred against Kiesinger personally?
Beate Klarsfeld publicly slapped Kiesinger in 1968.
56
What were the economic reforms under the grand coalition?
Greater central government control over Länder spending and taxation.
57
Who became Chancellor after Kiesinger and when?
Willy Brandt in October 1969.
58
What percentage of the vote did the SPD and FDP win together in the 1969 Bundestag elections?
48.1%.
59
What was the CDU/CSU vote share in the 1969 election?
46.1%.
60
What was Willy Brandt’s main domestic aim as Chancellor?
'Dare more democracy'.
61
What key social reforms did Willy Brandt introduce?
* Rise in pensions
* Education expansion
* Job creation schemes
* Social housing
* Town planning
* Railway promotion.
62
What was Brandt's policy towards Eastern Europe called, and what prize did it earn him?
Ostpolitik; Nobel Peace Prize in 1971.
63
What economic issue undermined Brandt's domestic programme?
Inflation.
64
Who replaced Karl Schiller as Finance Minister in 1972?
Helmut Schmidt.
65
What major crisis of confidence did Brandt narrowly survive in April 1972?
A vote of no confidence.
66
How successful was the SPD in the 1972 election?
Won 45.8% of the vote.
67
What event led to Brandt’s resignation in 1974?
A scandal involving an aide being an East German spy.
68
Who succeeded Willy Brandt as Chancellor?
Helmut Schmidt in May 1974.
69
What positions had Helmut Schmidt held before becoming Chancellor?
* Minister of Defence (1969–1972)
* Minister of Finance (1972–1974).
70
What major challenges did Schmidt face as Chancellor?
Opposition from the left wing of the SPD and terrorism.
71
When was the Mogadishu incident, and what was it?
October 1977.
72
What new political party was founded during Schmidt's time and when?
The Green Party in 1979.
73
When did Helmut Kohl become Chancellor?
October 1982.
74
How did Kohl’s government fare in the 1987 elections?
Retained power but with a reduced majority.
75
What event symbolized the end of this era of government and opposition?
The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989.
76
When did Die Grünen enter the national government and with what vote share?
In 1983, with 5.6% of the vote.
77
What was the Green Party’s performance in the 1987 election?
Captured 8.3% of the vote.
78
What was the significance of the formation of the DKP in 1968?
The Communist Party was allowed to operate openly again in West Germany.
79
What was the significance of the international student revolutions of 1968?
A wave of student unrest globally, including France, USA, Italy, Britain, and Communist Eastern Europe. Causes included political grievances, opposition to the Vietnam War, and local issues.
80
Why was there little extra-parliamentary protest in Germany before the 1960s?
Reaction against the politicisation of Nazi and early Weimar eras, 'Ohne mich' attitude under Adenauer's 'Chancellor democracy', rising living standards, and cultural conservatism.
81
What impact did the 1966 Grand Coalition have on protest movements?
Sparked fears of a 'one-party state'. Young and far-left groups saw it as stifling opposition.
82
What were the key reasons for German student protests in the 1960s?
* Wider generation gap
* Trial of Auschwitz guards
* Left-wing newspapers encouraging criticism
* Fear of Emergency Laws
* Anti-American sentiment
* Overcrowded universities
83
What were the May 1968 Emergency Laws and why were they controversial?
Allowed a Bundestag committee and Bundesrat reps to issue decrees during civil unrest or war. Protested by SPD Students' Federation and the APO.
84
How did the protest movement emerge in Germany?
1966: 4,000 students staged a 'sit-in' at Free University of Berlin. 1967: Protests sparked by the Shah of Iran's visit and police killing of Benno Ohnesorg.
85
Who was Benno Ohnesorg and why was his death important?
A protester killed by police during 1967 demonstrations. Seen as the 'first political murder' of the Federal Republic.
86
Who was Rudi Dutschke and what happened to him?
East German-born student leader, shot and severely wounded in April 1968. Prominent speaker for the APO until his death in 1979.
87
How large was the May 1968 protest in Bonn, and what was its focus?
80,000 people protested against Kiesinger’s emergency legislation. APO accused of planning revolutionary action.
88
What happened to the APO by 1969?
Lost momentum after the Emergency Laws. Divisions within the student movement and SPD victory led many back to mainstream politics.
89
What was the Red Army Faction (RAF) and who were its key leaders?
A left-wing terrorist group formed after 1969. Key figures: * Andreas Baader
* Ulrike Meinhof
* Gudrun Ensslin.
90
Who were Andreas Baader, Ulrike Meinhof, and Gudrun Ensslin?
Baader: Involved in petty crime, imprisoned 1972. Meinhof: Left-wing journalist, committed suicide 1976. Ensslin: Arrested 1972, hanged herself 1976.
91
How did the RAF escalate its activities during the 1970s?
Linked with Palestinian groups, engaged in assassinations, bombings, and kidnappings after 1972 arrests.
92
What were some major RAF-linked terrorist activities in the 1970s?
* 1972: Siege of Saudi Arabian embassy
* 1975: Hostage-taking at German embassy
* 1977: Kidnap of Hans-Martin Schleyer
93
How did the German government respond to RAF terrorism?
Chancellor Helmut Schmidt refused blackmail demands and ordered a successful storming of hijacked plane in October 1977.
94
What was the significance of Holger Meins’ death in prison 1974?
Meins died on hunger strike. RAF assassinated Judge Günter von Drenkmann in retaliation.
95
What impact did the RAF's actions have on public opinion?
Initially some sympathy, but increasing violence led to loss of support by mid-1970s.
96
What was the PLO and how did it connect to the RAF?
The PLO fought for Palestinian statehood and provided training and support to the RAF.
97
What was the West German 'economic miracle'?
Between 1949 and 1989, West Germany’s economy grew so much that its GNP more than quadrupled. It was re-established as one of the world's leading industrial nations.
98
What were West Germany’s GDP annual growth rates by decade?
1950s: 8.2% per year
1960s: 4.6%
1970s: 2.8%
Early 1980s: 0.7% (rising to 2.6% in 1984)
99
Why did West Germany experience rapid economic growth in the 1950s?
* Inherited the industrial Rhineland area
* New factories with latest technology
* Allied reforms (e.g., currency reform, decentralisation, tax cuts)
* Marshall Plan aid ($1.5 billion, 1948–1952)
* Plentiful labour from refugees
* Low starting production levels
* Demand from Korean War (1950)
* No colonies or major military spending
* EEC membership from 1957
100
What was Ludwig Erhard’s 'social market economy' concept?
* Free businesses within a government framework
* State regulation for fair competition and labour protection
* Compromise between free market and state control
101
What were the key measures of the 'social market economy' in the 1950s?
* Investment Aid Law (Dec 1951) – subsidies to heavy industry
* Co-determination Law (1951) – worker participation in iron/steel management
* Works Councils (1952) – joint worker/employer discussions
* Anti-Trust Law (1957) – broke up monopolies
* Banking controls to strengthen the Deutschmark
* Collective bargaining via employers’ (BDA) and workers’ (DGB) associations
102
What limits did the 'social market economy' face?
* Government 'work creation schemes' (1950)
* Agricultural subsidies ('Green Plan')
* Continued survival of large conglomerates
103
What were the results of the 1950s boom?
* Unemployment fell to 0.5%
* Investment rose from 19% (1950) to 24% (1960)
* Exports dominated by mechanical engineering, cars, electrical and chemical products
* 'Wohlstand für alle' ('Wealth for all') slogan achieved
104
Which industries symbolised West Germany’s 1950s economic boom?
* Volkswagen Beetle (under DM 2000)
* BMW revival (Herbert Quandt)
* Audi revival in Bavaria
* Mercedes 300S by Daimler-Benz
* Ford Cologne and GM Opel produced mass-market cars
105
How did West Germany tackle labour shortages in the 1960s?
* Recruited Gastarbeiter ('guest workers') from Italy, Yugoslavia, and Turkey
* Gastarbeiter rose from 150,000 (1959) to 1.2 million (1966), making up 10% of workforce by 1970s
106
What triggered the 1965 economic slump?
* GDP growth fell to 2.9%, industrial growth to 1.2%
* Inflation reached 4% in 1966
* Overspending on railways and military equipment
* Over-subsidising agriculture
107
How did Erhard attempt to fix the 1965 slump?
* Cut spending plans by 10%
* Raised interest rates
Result: Deepened the recession; Erhard resigned in November 1966.
108
What key economic measures were introduced under Kiesinger (1966–1969)?
* Stabilisation Law (June 1967): enabled tax changes and borrowing
* Infrastructure investment (roads, rail, telecoms)
* Central government gained control over Länder taxation and spending
* Higher taxes and spending cuts of nearly 2000 million Marks
* 'Konzertierte Aktion' – cooperation between industries
109
What were the results of economic policies by 1969?
* Budget balanced by 1967
* Industrial growth at 6% (1968)
* Unemployment fell
* Inflation fell to 1.5% (1969)
110
What changes occurred in agriculture and industry during the 1960s?
* Agricultural labour force shrank, but productivity rose
* Service industries grew
* Manufacturing stayed strong but began to decline in the 1970s
111
Who was Franz-Josef Strauss?
* CSU Chairman (1961–1988)
* Minister of Defence (1956–1962)
* Minister of Finance (1966–1969)
* Strong right-wing, nationalist, and anti-Communist views
112
What was the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)?
* Treaty of Paris signed in April 1951
* Merged coal, iron, steel industries of West Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg
* Eliminated tariffs, created free labour market
* Began functioning in July 1952
113
What role did West Germany play in the EEC (European Economic Community)?
* Treaty of Rome signed in March 1957
* EEC formed, merging ECSC and EURATOM
* By July 1968, internal tariffs were removed
* Trade among members quadrupled (1958–1968)
* West Germany became a major contributor to the EEC
114
What ended continuous post-war growth in West Germany?
* 1971–1973 inflation
* Brandt’s welfare spending
* Rising import costs
* First oil crisis of 1973
115
What caused the first oil crisis of 1973?
* Yom Kippur War (Oct 1973)
* OPEC reduced oil production, imposed embargoes
* Oil prices rose 70% after war and doubled again in December
116
How did the USA’s currency decision impact West Germany in 1971?
* USA ended fixed exchange rates (August 1971)
* Strong Deutschmark attracted dollar conversions
* Fuelled inflation in Germany by offering cheap credit
117
What was the general attitude towards the Nazi past in West Germany during the 1950s?
The Nazi past was largely ignored, suppressed, or argued away.
## Footnote
Former Nazis were rehabilitated into Adenauer’s Germany, and manufacturers rebuilt with capital made during the Nazi era.
118
What percentage of West Germans believed Hitler could have been one of Germany’s greatest statesmen in 1955?
48% in 1955
## Footnote
This belief decreased to 32% in 1967.
119
What societal division was evident by 1968 in West Germany regarding attitudes to the Nazi past?
Society polarised:
* Older generation avoided discussing the past
* Younger generation criticised their parents, calling them 'spiessbürger' (conformist stick-in-the-muds).
120
Which political leaders had former Nazi Party membership in the 1960s?
Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger and Federal President Heinrich Lübke.
121
What was the 1951 Reinstatement Act?
It re-employed former Nazi civil servants and gave them full pension credits for service under the Third Reich.
122
What role did the Nazi war-crime trials between 1958–1965 have on society?
They helped bring more open discussion about Germany’s Nazi past.
123
When did ten Länder make the teaching of the Nazi era compulsory in schools?
1962.
124
When did real societal transformation regarding the Nazi past begin?
In the 1970s.
125
What significant gesture did Willy Brandt make in December 1970?
He knelt before the Warsaw Ghetto memorial, showing personal remorse for Nazi crimes against the Jews.
126
What event in 1972 showed growing public sympathy for Jews?
The murder of 11 Israeli athletes by PLO terrorists at the Munich Olympic Games.
127
How many people watched the 1979 television series on the Holocaust?
20 million — over half the adult population.
128
How did school visits to Dachau concentration camp change between 1968 and the late 1970s?
471 school groups visited Dachau in 1968; over 5000 groups visited annually by the end of the 1970s.
129
Where and when were SS officer reunions forbidden or occurred in 1985?
Forbidden: Harzburg, May 1985; Took place: Nesselwang, Bavaria, December 1985.
130
What was the estimated number of extreme right-wing group members in West Germany by 1989?
Around 18,000.
131
What terrorist incident were neo-Nazis associated with in 1980?
The Oktoberfest bomb attack in Munich, which killed 15 (including the attacker) and injured 215 people.
132
How did neo-Nazis circumvent the 1945 German Criminal Code banning Nazi symbols?
By adapting Nazi symbols so they were not identical; this was stopped in 1994.
133
How much did average West German household income increase between 1950 and 1970?
By 400%.
134
What social change did industrialisation bring by 1980?
74% lived in communities of over 10,000 people, compared to only 29% living in small communities in 1950.
135
What percentage of West Germans worked in the service sector and agriculture by 1983?
16.4% in the service sector and 5.9% in forestry and agriculture.
136
What change occurred to the self-employed population between 1950 and 1989?
It decreased from 15% in 1950 to 8.8% in 1989.
137
Describe the social class structure in West Germany from 1949 to 1989.
Traditional elites retained influence; Middle class grew due to prosperity, education, and service sector expansion; Workers benefited from affluence but largely shifted to 'upper working' or 'lower middle' class status.
138
What impact did Gastarbeiter have on West German society?
They took the lowest-paid, least-skilled jobs, allowing native Germans to move into higher social classes.
139
What changes occurred in female employment between 1949 and 1989?
Female employees grew from about 1/6 to slightly over 1/2 of the workforce; 25% of married women worked in 1950; 50% by 1970.
140
When were women allowed to become officers and soldiers in the German Army, and in what roles?
From 1975, in medical and musical corps only.
141
What changes in political representation for women occurred between 1949 and 1987?
6.8% of Bundestag members were women in 1949; 9.8% in 1983; 15.4% in 1987.
142
What legal reforms for women took place in 1976, 1977, and 1980?
1976: Criminal code on abortion liberalised; 1977: Divorce laws made it easier to divorce; 1980: New Act prevented sex discrimination in the workplace.
143
What happened to Germany’s birth rate between 1960 and 1989?
1960: Average 2.4 children per woman; 1989: Under 1.42 children per woman.
144
What was the female employment distribution by the end of the twentieth century?
2% in agriculture; 14% in industry; 84% in service industries.
145
What general social trends characterised West Germany by the late 1980s?
Predominantly affluent, urban, and well-educated society; Some pockets of poverty (especially among Gastarbeiter); Freer society with relaxed censorship and homosexuality laws; Ageing society with a declining birth rate and rising life expectancy.
146
How did authoritarian attitudes towards youth change between 1949 and 1989?
In the 1950s, authoritarian attitudes were strong in family, schools, and universities. From 1968, attitudes reversed, with adults increasingly responding to youth demands.
147
How did family attitudes change from 1955 to 1984?
In 1955, 16% of young people took parents as role models; by 1984 only 3%; Over 50% of parents approved of corporal punishment in 1954; by 1984 it was frowned upon.
148
What educational reforms were introduced after 1949?
The 1949 Constitution gave Länder educational autonomy; Schools expanded with traditional Gymnasien and vocational Realschulen, and Hauptschulen declined; The school leaving age rose from 15 to 16 by the 1970s.
149
How did university education expand from 1950 to 1989?
1950: 108,000 university students; End of 1960s: nearly 400,000 students; 1989: over 1 million students in 49 universities.
150
What educational reforms were introduced under Willy Brandt (1969–1974)?
Government education spending increased fivefold; Teacher training improved; 1971 Educational Support Law gave grants to poorer students.
151
How did youth express rebellion in the 1960s and 1970s?
Youth adopted British/American culture, pop music, and fashion to break from wartime traditions and express a new identity.
152
What were unemployment trends in West Germany, 1949–1989?
1958–1973: Unemployment under 3%; After 1973 oil crisis: Unemployment climbed continuously.
153
What caused the student protests of 1968?
Linked to the first major economic downturn, discontent over educational traditions, anti-capitalist and anti-American views.
154
What social tensions emerged during the 1970s and 1980s?
Political terrorism and social protests; Economic downturn after oil crises; Rise of the 'underclass' with immigrants, drug addicts, drop-outs.
155
What happened during the Hafenstrasse protests in Hamburg?
Since 1981: 12 houses occupied by squatters; 1987: Barricades built against eviction; After 8 days, squatters allowed to stay.
156
How did belief in progress change from 1967 to 1982 according to Allensbach Institute surveys?
1967: Over half believed in progress; 1982: Only 28% still believed in progress.
157
How did the FRG government attempt to reduce immigration in the 1980s?
Offered grants to Turkish Gastarbeiter families to return to Turkey, though few accepted the offer.
158
How was culture encouraged in early FRG?
Constitution gave Länder cultural autonomy; State spending: ~1% of budgets went to the arts until 1970s cuts.
159
What changes took place in theatre in the FRG from 1949 to 1989?
300 theatres, only 60 private; 1960s: Surge in provocative plays; Attendance declined slightly in the 1980s.
160
How did German cinema evolve between 1949 and 1989?
1950s: Dominated by bland, apolitical films; 1970s–1980s: 'New German Cinema' sparked a renaissance aimed at educated audiences.
161
What was the significance of literature in post-war Germany?
Writers silenced by Nazis re-emerged; Wartime experiences written about; 'Group 47' encouraged writing on contemporary issues.
162
How did mass culture evolve in the FRG?
Rise of TV and music on portable devices; Growth of press readership; Surge in cheap paperback sales.
163
What social changes summarised German society by 1989?
Affluence and consumer society raised living standards but widened rich-poor gap; Growing middle class; Youth culture and Americanisation increased.
164
Who was the Chancellor of West Germany in 1989?
Helmut Kohl.
165
What significant event did Helmut Kohl facilitate in September 1987?
He invited East German leader Erich Honecker to West Germany.
166
What key agreement was made during the 1987 meeting between Kohl and Honecker?
They agreed on environmental and scientific cooperation and declared that war must never again emanate from German soil.
167
How was the East German economy supported prior to the rise of Gorbachev in 1985?
The East German economy was propped up by West German loans.
168
What major change in the USSR's policy occurred under Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985?
Gorbachev abandoned the Brezhnev doctrine, renouncing the USSR's right to intervene in its satellite states.
169
What event led to the fall of Erich Honecker?
The peaceful protests in East Germany and the subsequent resignation of Honecker in October 1989.
170
What was the symbolic event on 9 November 1989?
The Berlin Wall was opened.
171
What phrase captured the sentiment of the protests following the Berlin Wall's fall?
"We are one people."
172
What was the Ten-Point Plan proposed by Kohl on 28 November 1989?
A five-year programme with ten steps aimed at reunification.
173
What were the components of Kohl's Ten-Point Plan?
* Ecological cooperation
* Free elections in the GDR
* Moves towards a federal system
174
What was the main criticism of Kohl's Ten-Point Plan?
Critics argued it was too hasty and did not fully consider international opposition.
175
How did the USA support Kohl's reunification plan?
The USA supported reunification if Germany remained within NATO.
176
What was the significance of the Brandenburg Gate in December 1989?
It symbolically opened, and large crowds gathered in support of reunification.
177
What route to unification did Kohl prefer?
Kohl favored a rapid unification under Article 23 of the Basic Law.
178
What alternative route to unification did the SPD propose?
The SPD favored a slower approach under Article 146 of the Basic Law.
179
What was the result of the March 1990 elections in East Germany?
The 'Alliance for Germany' party won 48.1% of the vote.
180
What was the currency union between East and West Germany?
The currency union took effect in July 1990, with the Ostmark exchanged at a 1:1 rate for the Deutschmark.
181
What were the consequences of the 1:1 exchange rate for the Ostmark?
It made East German production uneconomic, and the West had to subsidize East German industry.
182
What were the 'Two plus Four' negotiations?
Negotiations between East and West Germany and the four Allied powers about reunification.
183
When did the reunification treaty come into effect?
The reunification treaty was signed on 31 August 1990 and came into effect on 3 October 1990.
184
What was the outcome of the December 1990 all-German election?
The CDU/CSU won, and Kohl's coalition with the FDP was formed.
185
What was the key political consequence of reunification for the Green Party?
The Green Party lost all seats, but Bündnis 90 was more successful.
186
What was the PDS?
The PDS (Party of Democratic Socialism) was a reformed version of the Socialist Unity Party of the GDR.
187
How did reunification impact the political landscape in Germany?
The political structure remained largely unchanged.
188
How did Germany respond to the Gulf War in 1991?
Germany remained on the sidelines but supported the UN resolution financially.
189
What significant declaration was made in Moscow in July 1990?
The "Miracle of Moscow," where Gorbachev agreed that Germany could reunite and remain in NATO.
190
What were the key terms of the reunification treaty signed on 31 August 1990?
* Property claims
* Investment conditions
* Social security transfer
* Provisions for federalism
191
What was the result of the 1990 election for the extreme right-wing NPD?
The NPD failed to win seats, despite gaining 7.3% of the vote.
192
What were the economic changes in the East after reunification?
The GDR adopted FRG's economic, social, and labour laws, and many industries collapsed.
193
What was the impact on unemployment in Eastern Germany after reunification?
Unemployment grew rapidly in the East.
194
What was the government's response to the economic challenges in the East?
The 'Eastern recovery programme' was launched in March 1991.
195
What economic results were seen in the Eastern Länder by 1991?
Real income rose by about 28%, and 175,000 new businesses were founded.
196
What were the social impacts of reunification on the East German population?
Reunification led to a massive shift in social dynamics.
197
What changes occurred in the workforce after reunification?
21% moved to a new job, 8% were unemployed, and 10% took early retirement.
198
Did living standards improve in the East immediately after reunification?
No, living standards did not immediately rise to West German levels.
199
What was the condition of Germany by 1991, in terms of public opinion?
A majority of Germans realized how different the two regions were.
200
What was the 'solidarity tax' and how was it received?
A tax introduced in 1991 to fund the rebuilding of the East, generating resentment.
201
How did reunification affect crime and social behaviour in the East?
There were reports of rising crime rates and youth delinquency.
202
What social tensions arose in the West after reunification?
An increase in racism directed at Gastarbeiter and asylum seekers.
203
How did the reunification impact national pride in Germany?
Reunification fostered a sense of national pride.
204
What new sense of identity emerged in the East?
A sense of GDR nostalgia emerged.
205
How was the capital decision made after reunification?
Berlin won a Bundestag vote by 17 votes to be the capital.
