Empire to democracy, 1914-1929 Flashcards
(213 cards)
1
Q
What was the ‘Burgfriede’ and when did it occur?
A
The ‘Burgfriede’ was a political truce in August 1914 where all political parties united to support the German war effort and avoid strikes. It led to a unanimous Reichstag vote for war credits.
2
Q
What were ‘war credits’?
A
War credits were bonds sold to the public by the Kaiser’s government to raise funds for the war, with a guarantee of repayment with interest.
3
Q
What was the ‘Siegfriede’ and who supported it?
A
The ‘Siegfriede’ was the concept of a victorious peace involving territorial annexations, supported by aristocrats, the middle class, and parts of the Reichstag, including some socialists.
4
Q
What event marked the beginning of the political breakdown in 1916?
A
In January 1916, Kaiser Wilhelm II promised Prussian constitutional reform to maintain SPD support, but this failed to prevent the Burgfriede’s breakdown.
5
Q
Who were appointed as military leaders in August 1916, and what was the political impact?
A
Paul von Hindenburg became army chief of staff and Erich Ludendorff his deputy, marking the rise of a military dictatorship as Wilhelm II effectively ceded power.
6
Q
What led to the creation of the USPD in April 1917?
A
The SPD split due to opposition to the war, leading to the formation of the USPD as a breakaway committed to ending the war.
7
Q
What was the significance of the July 1917 ‘peace resolution’?
A
Proposed by Matthias Erzberger, it called for peace without annexations and passed by 212 to 126 votes, supported by SPD, USPD, and Zentrum.
8
Q
Who replaced Bethmann-Hollweg in July 1917, and how did he respond to the peace resolution?
A
George Michaelis replaced him and accepted the peace resolution only ‘as I interpret it’, lasting until November 1917.
9
Q
What was the Fatherland Party and how large did it become?
A
The Fatherland Party, formed in September 1917, was a right-wing, pro-annexation party with 1.2 million members by 1918.
10
Q
What prompted Ludendorff to accept the need for a parliamentary democracy in 1918?
A
The failure of the March 1918 Spring Offensive led Ludendorff to seek an armistice based on Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
11
Q
What began the ‘Revolution from Above’ in October 1918?
A
On 30 September 1918, the Kaiser accepted Hertling’s resignation and initiated constitutional reforms, including a parliamentary government.
12
Q
What key reforms were introduced on 28 October 1918?
A
Germany became a parliamentary monarchy: ministers became responsible to the Reichstag, the Kaiser’s control over the military was reduced, and the Prussian three-class voting system was abolished.
13
Q
What was the trigger for the ‘Revolution from Below’ in late October 1918?
A
Naval mutinies at Wilhelmshaven and Kiel sparked a mass movement involving 40,000 rebellious sailors, soldiers, and workers.
14
Q
What happened in Berlin on 9 November 1918?
A
Workers’ and soldiers’ councils formed; Philipp Scheidemann declared a republic, and Karl Liebknecht proclaimed a ‘Workers’ Republic’.
15
Q
What type of government was established after the 1918 revolution?
A
A socialist republic was formed, led by SPD Chancellor Friedrich Ebert, with the more radical Spartacists sidelined.
16
Q
How popular was the Spartacus League by the end of 1918?
A
It had barely 1,000 members and limited support, despite its leadership by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht.
17
Q
What were the results of the January 1919 elections for the National Assembly?
A
SPD, USPD, and Zentrum won nearly 80% of the vote, indicating strong support for a democratic republic.
18
Q
Why did the National Assembly meet in Weimar in February 1919?
A
Weimar was chosen for safety and its symbolic cultural legacy due to violence in Berlin following the Spartacist uprising.
19
Q
Who was Hugo Preuss and what did he do?
A
Hugo Preuss was a liberal law professor who drafted the Weimar Constitution, adopted in August 1919.
20
Q
What was the nature of the Weimar Constitution created in 1919?
A
It was Europe’s most democratic constitution, balancing central and federal powers, with Länder retaining control of police, schools, and courts.
21
Q
What were the Freikorps, and what was their political alignment?
A
The Freikorps were right-wing, nationalist volunteer military units formed of demobilised soldiers and officers. In 1919, there were between 170 and 200 groups. Many later joined Hitler’s SA (Sturmabteilung).
22
Q
What political pact did Ebert sign on 10 November 1918, and what did it promise?
A
The Ebert-Groener Pact. Groener agreed to suppress revolutionary activity; in return, the government promised to maintain the army’s authority and its officers.
23
Q
What was the Stinnes-Legien Agreement of 15 November 1918?
A
Employers recognised trade unions and agreed to the 8-hour workday; in return, unions promised to maintain production, end strikes, and oppose workers’ councils.
24
Q
What was the reaction of the USPD to Ebert’s compromises?
A
They disapproved; the USPD ministers resigned on 29 December 1918, leading to a split with the SPD. The KPD (German Communist Party) was founded at the end of December 1918 and boycotted the January 1919 elections.
25
What was the political support base for the DVP and KPD?
The DVP was conservative with upper-class support; the KPD was communist/socialist, supported by workers.
26
When did the Spartacist Rebellion occur, and who led it?
5–12 January 1919; led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg. Over 100 workers were killed. Both leaders were murdered by Freikorps despite government orders.
27
What were the consequences of the Spartacist Uprising?
It caused a permanent split on the left; the SPD was seen as a traitor by the far left and was hated by workers.
28
What was the March 1919 left-wing uprising?
Another Spartacist uprising in Berlin and a Communist government in Bavaria after Kurt Eisner’s assassination in February. A republic of workers’ soviets was declared in Munich.
29
What happened in April–May 1919?
Strikes in Halle and the Ruhr. Demands included soviet-based government, shorter hours, and worker control. Suppressed with violence: 1,200 workers killed in Berlin (March), 700 in Bavaria (May).
30
What was the Red Army uprising in 1920?
After the Kapp Putsch in March 1920, a Red Army of 50,000 workers took control of the Ruhr. In Halle and Dresden, 1,000 workers and 250 police/soldiers were killed.
31
What happened in December 1920 in terms of left-wing organisation?
The USPD (c. 400,000 members) merged with the KPD (c. 78,000 members), strengthening the far left.
32
What occurred in March 1921 and 1923 from the left?
March 1921: Communist risings in Merseburg, Hamburg, and the Ruhr (145 killed).
1923: Further strikes in Saxony and Hamburg during economic collapse.
33
How many political assassinations were committed by the left between 1919 and 1924?
22 assassinations; 10 of the assassins were caught and sentenced to death.
34
What was the ‘stab-in-the-back’ myth and who supported it?
The idea that Germany lost WWI due to internal betrayal, not military defeat. Supported by right-wing elites, the army, and Freikorps.
35
What was the impact of the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919 on the right?
It fuelled right-wing anger. The Treaty was seen as a ‘diktat’, imposed without consultation. It split the cabinet and led moderates to lean rightward.
36
When was the Kapp Putsch, and what triggered it?
March 1920. Triggered by Defence Minister Noske's attempt to disband two Freikorps units (12,000 men) near Berlin. General Walther von Lüttwitz refused.
37
Who led the Kapp Putsch and what happened?
Led by Kapp, Lüttwitz, and Captain Erhardt. The army refused to act. Ebert fled to Dresden. A general strike by workers collapsed the putsch in 4 days.
38
What did the Kapp Putsch reveal about the Republic?
The army was unreliable, workers had power, and the Republic was weak without military backing. Only one person was punished after the putsch.
39
Who was General Wilhelm Groener?
Succeeded Ludendorff in 1918, advised the Kaiser to abdicate, signed the Ebert-Groener Pact. Later Minister of Defence (1928–32), resigned in May 1932 due to Nazi rise.
40
Who was Hugo Stinnes?
Industrialist known as the ‘King of the Ruhr’. Owned 20% of German industry. DVP member of Reichstag. His empire collapsed after his death in 1924.
41
Who was Gustav Noske?
SPD Defence Minister (1919–20), brutally suppressed the left. Hated by workers, removed in 1920. Involved in crushing the Spartacists and Kiel mutiny.
42
Who was Wolfgang Kapp?
DNVP politician, led the 1920 Kapp Putsch, fled to Sweden, died in 1922 awaiting trial.
43
Who was Hans von Seeckt?
Commander of the Reichswehr (1920–26), tried to keep the army out of politics. The Reichswehr became a privileged elite under his command.
44
What were the Vaterländische Verbände (Patriotic Leagues) and what did they do?
Paramilitary groups, often from former Freikorps units, committed to eliminating politicians they saw as betraying Germany. Fiercely anti-Republican and sometimes supported by the army.
45
Who was Hugo Haase and when was he assassinated?
USPD member and part of Ebert’s first ruling council; assassinated in October 1919 in front of the Reichstag.
46
Who assassinated Matthias Erzberger and why was he significant?
Assassinated in August 1921 by Organisation Consul. He was a Zentrum deputy, led the 1917 Peace Resolution, signed the Treaty of Versailles, and introduced major tax reforms as Finance Minister (1919–1920).
47
Who killed Walther Rathenau and when?
Killed by Organisation Consul in June 1922.
48
What were the total right-wing political assassinations from 1919–1923?
354 assassinations.
49
What was Organisation Consul and what happened to it?
A right-wing terrorist group responsible for major political assassinations; outlawed under the July 1922 'Protection of the Republic' Law.
50
How effective was the 1922 Protection of the Republic Law?
Limited effect due to right-wing judicial sympathies. Organisation Consul disbanded, but Bavaria refused to implement the law, enabling Nazi growth.
51
What were the consequences for Rathenau's killers?
Received an average of only 4 years in prison.
52
Out of 354 right-wing murderers, how many were severely punished before 1923?
Only one.
53
When was the total reparations sum fixed and what was the amount?
April 1921 – £6.6 billion to be paid in 66 annual instalments of £100 million.
54
What caused the French occupation of the Ruhr?
Germany defaulted on timber and coal deliveries; France reacted, partly due to anger over the Treaty of Rapallo.
55
When did French and Belgian troops occupy the Ruhr?
11 January 1923.
56
What was the German government’s response to the Ruhr occupation?
'Passive resistance' – workers refused to cooperate with the occupying forces.
57
What was the result of passive resistance?
Escalating violence and disastrous economic consequences.
58
How many French and Belgian troops were in the Ruhr by the end of 1923?
100,000.
59
What happened during the Beer Hall Putsch?
On 8 November 1923, Hitler and SA men took control of a beer hall in Munich, trying to force support for a march on Berlin. It failed the next day after a gun battle.
60
Who did Hitler hope to gain support from in the Beer Hall Putsch?
General von Kahr, General von Lossow, and Ludendorff.
61
What was the outcome of the Beer Hall Putsch?
It was a failure; Hitler was arrested after fleeing and later imprisoned.
62
What was the Nazi Party originally called and who founded it?
Founded as the 'Committee for Independent Workmen' in March 1918 by Anton Drexler; renamed the German Workers’ Party (DAP) in January 1919.
63
When did Hitler join the DAP?
September 1919 as an army spy; became a committee member.
64
What major change did Hitler make to the party in February 1920?
Renamed it the NSDAP and introduced the 25-Point Programme.
65
When did Hitler become leader of the Nazi Party?
July 1921.
66
What was the SA and when was it founded?
Paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party; founded in August 1921.
67
What were key ideas in the 25-Point Programme?
* Anti-Semitism
* Anti-communism
* Nationalism
* Anti-capitalism
* Abolishing unearned income
* Nationalising businesses
68
What is 'Lebensraum'?
Nazi belief that Germany needed more living space for its population.
69
What is the Führerprinzip?
The idea that Germany needed an all-powerful leader (the Führer).
70
What were the 1919 National Assembly election results?
76% voted for pro-republican parties (SPD, Zentrum, DDP).
71
What changed in the June 1920 elections?
Moderate parties’ vote fell to 44.6%; USPD gained 17.9%, DNVP 14.9%.
72
What is ‘Fulfilment Policy’ (Erfüllungspolitik)?
Wirth’s policy of cooperating with the Treaty of Versailles to encourage Allied concessions.
73
What happened to Upper Silesia in 1921?
League of Nations gave industrial east to Poland despite 60% voting to stay in Germany.
74
What was the Treaty of Rapallo and when was it signed?
April 1922 – Germany and USSR agreed on diplomatic and economic cooperation.
75
How many governments were there between 1919 and 1924?
Eight.
76
Who was Chancellor during the Treaty of Versailles signing?
Philipp Scheidemann (SPD) – resigned in June 1919.
77
Who was Chancellor during the Kapp Putsch (March 1920)?
Gustav Bauer (SPD).
78
What party did Gustav Stresemann lead during his 100-day chancellorship?
DVP – led the ‘Great Coalition’.
79
What contributed to Stresemann’s reputation for stabilising Germany?
His work as Chancellor (1923) and Foreign Secretary (1923–1929).
80
When did Gustav Stresemann become Chancellor and Foreign Secretary?
Chancellor in August 1923 (until November), continued as Foreign Secretary until his death in October 1929.
81
What coalition did Stresemann form in August 1923?
A coalition between DVP, Zentrum, and SPD.
82
What major currency reform did Stresemann implement?
Introduced the Rentenmark in November 1923, stabilising inflation.
83
Who was appointed Reich Currency Commissioner in 1923, and what did he do?
Hjalmar Schacht; introduced the Rentenmark and brought inflation under control.
84
What was the Dawes Plan (April 1924)?
Reorganised reparations in Germany’s favour and allowed for American loans.
85
What international agreement did Germany sign in 1925, and what did it recognise?
Locarno Treaties; accepted western borders but not eastern ones.
86
What was the significance of Germany joining the League of Nations in 1926?
Gave Germany international credibility and a platform to air grievances.
87
What was the Treaty of Berlin (1926)?
Treaty with USSR; extended Rapallo Pact, pledged neutrality if attacked, helped win army’s trust.
88
What did the Young Plan (June 1929) achieve?
Reduced total reparations by 75%, lowered annual payments, and set Allies evacuation of Rhineland by 1930.
89
What was the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)?
65 nations, including Germany, condemned war as a solution to disputes.
90
How did industrial relations improve from 1923?
New arbitration system, public works and housing programmes, and extended welfare schemes.
91
What happened during the Munich Putsch (November 1923)?
Hitler’s failed coup; a reaction to the end of passive resistance in the Ruhr.
92
What was the Reichsbanner (1924)?
Pro-republican paramilitary force made up of SPD, Zentrum, and DDP members. Attracted over 1 million, mostly ex-soldiers.
93
How did extremist party support change between May and December 1924 elections?
Nazis: 6.5% (May) → 3% (Dec)
Communists: 12.6% (May) → 9% (Dec)
Support for pro-republican parties rose from 61% to 67.5%
94
What were the Communist ‘Red Fighting League’ and Nazi SA doing in the late 1920s?
Clashing in the streets; but both remained politically marginal.
Communists: 54 seats (1928)
Nazis: 12 seats, 2.6% vote (1928)
95
What happened after President Ebert died in February 1925?
Paul von Hindenburg was elected President (48.3% in second round).
96
What was the significance of Hindenburg’s presidency?
A conservative figurehead (‘Ersatzkaiser’) who lent legitimacy to the Republic.
97
How many coalition governments were there between 1923 and 1928?
Six different coalition governments.
98
Why was the SPD often excluded from government between 1923–1928?
Poor leadership and leftward drift made coalitions difficult.
99
What was the ‘Grand Coalition’ of 1928?
Formed by SPD, Zentrum, DVP, DDP, and BVP. Led by Hermann Müller (SPD). It was one of the longest-lasting Weimar governments (1928–1930).
100
What happened to the Nazi Party after Hitler’s release in December 1924?
Reorganised in 1925 with Gaue system, annual rallies, SA under Röhm, SS under Himmler.
101
What was the Bamberg Conference (1926)?
Hitler reasserted leadership (Führerprinzip), rejected Strasser’s socialist agenda.
102
Who helped fund or promote the Nazi Party by 1929?
Alfred Hugenburg (DNVP leader, media mogul) promoted Hitler during Anti-Young Plan campaign.
Joseph Goebbels became head of Nazi propaganda.
103
How did the German Army evade Versailles restrictions (1923–1929)?
Secret training and weapons testing in USSR
By 1929, army was over twice its legal size
Possessed banned weapons
Reichswehr remained politically independent
104
Who led the army from 1920–1926 and expanded its influence?
Hans von Seeckt, Chief of Army Command.
105
Who lobbied politicians on behalf of the army from 1928?
Kurt von Schleicher.
106
How did the German government finance WWI?
Issued treasury bills and borrowed through 'war loans'; avoided new taxes and printed more money, breaking the gold standard.
107
By how much did the circulation of paper money increase between 1913 and 1919?
From 2,000 million to 45,000 million Marks.
108
What was the rise in national debt from 1913 to 1919?
From 5,000 million Marks to 144,000 million Marks.
109
What was the fall in productivity during WWI?
An average of 4% per year.
110
What happened to the value of the currency by 1919?
It fell to less than 20% of its pre-war value.
111
How did prices change during wartime inflation?
Basic foodstuffs and consumer goods tripled or more; worse on the Black Market.
112
What made Germany’s post-war economic situation worse in 1919?
Loss of land and colonies, Saar coalfields to France, reparations to Allies, and loss of 90% of merchant fleet.
113
What was the reparations bill set in 1921?
£6.6 billion, to be paid in goods and gold marks.
114
Why didn’t the Weimar government devalue the currency after WWI?
To avoid backlash from savers and maintain capital for rebuilding and welfare.
115
What were Germany's unemployment rates in 1921 compared to Britain?
Germany: 1.8%; Britain: nearly 17%.
116
How much did prices rise between 1918 and 1920?
Doubled between 1918–1919, and quadrupled between 1919–1920 (14x 1913 levels).
117
How did industrialists benefit from inflation?
Took cheap loans and repaid in devalued currency; made generous wage deals with worthless money.
118
What reparations had Germany made by May 1921?
2.6 billion gold marks in goods + 2.5 billion from Saarland coalfields.
119
What was Germany’s argument in 1921 regarding reparations?
Claimed it had already paid around 37 billion Marks.
120
Why was France suspicious of Germany’s November 1922 request?
Germany had just signed the Treaty of Rapallo with Russia.
121
What triggered the French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr?
Germany’s failure to deliver coal and timber led to invasion on 11 January 1923.
122
What was Chancellor Cuno’s response to the Ruhr invasion?
Stopped all reparations payments and ordered passive resistance.
123
When did Germany reach technical hyperinflation?
July 1922, when monthly inflation exceeded 50%.
124
What were some effects of hyperinflation by late 1923?
Currency worthless, mass printing of notes, food shortages, bartering, daily wage payments.
125
When did Gustav Stresemann become Chancellor?
August 1923.
126
What was the Rentenmark and when was it introduced?
A new currency in Nov 1923, backed by land/industry (not gold), exchanged at 1 Rentenmark = 1 trillion old Marks.
127
Who was appointed Reich Currency Commissioner in 1923?
Hjalmar Schacht.
128
What happened to inflation and bankruptcies in 1924?
Inflation stopped; bankruptcies rose from 233 (1923) to 6,000 (1924).
129
What were the four main terms of the Dawes Plan (April 1924)?
Reduced annual reparations until 1929; start with 1,000 million Marks, rising to 2,500 million; 800 million Mark loan from the USA; Reichsbank reorganised under Allied supervision.
130
What were the benefits of the Dawes Plan to Germany?
Allies accepted German difficulty; 25.5 billion Marks in loans (1924–30), vs 22.9 billion paid; Ruhr evacuated (1924–25); improved financial confidence.
131
What were the key features of the Young Plan (August 1929)?
Reduced total reparations by 75%; extended payments over 59 years; ended Allied bank supervision; allowed payment deferment during hardship.
132
Why was the Young Plan never fully implemented?
Wall Street Crash (1929); reparations suspended in June 1931 and cancelled in 1932.
133
What were unemployment and inflation trends by mid-late 1920s?
Inflation fell below zero (1926); unemployment peaked at over 20%.
134
Who coordinated war supply during WWI in Germany?
Walther Rathenau (head of War Materials Section, 1914).
135
How many war materials corporations were formed during WWI?
200, financed by the government.
136
How much industrial production had declined by 1919?
Down to just over one-third of 1913 levels.
137
What are examples of successful 'ersatz' materials during WWI?
Aluminium from clay; synthetic cellulose for explosives; nitrates from air (Haber & Bosch); animal tissue oils; synthetic rubber.
138
When did Germany return to pre-war production levels?
1927, with output exceeding pre-war levels in 1928–29.
139
What was the overall German economic growth from 1913 to 1929?
Just 4%, compared to 70% in the USA.
140
What was German unemployment by Feb 1929?
3 million.
141
What was ‘rationalisation’ in Weimar industry?
Removal of surplus labour, adoption of new tech and management techniques, and formation of cartels.
142
How many cartels existed by 1925?
Around 3,000.
143
By 1927, how did German heavy industry compare to pre-war levels?
Coal: 79%; Pig iron: 68%; Steel: 86%.
144
What major industrial company was formed in 1926 and what did it control?
Vereinigte Stahlwerke; controlled 40–50% of iron and steel production, 36% of coal and steel output.
145
What was the impact of the First World War on class divisions in Germany?
Initially created a sense of unity and patriotism, but evaporated due to food shortages and hardship.
## Footnote
This was referred to as the 'spirit of 1914'.
146
What was conscription during WWI?
Required all fit men aged 17 to 60 to serve in the army or take up other war work from 1916.
## Footnote
This was a significant mobilization effort during the war.
147
How did working men's wages fare during the war?
Generally held up, but middle-class professionals lost out economically.
148
What role did women play during WWI?
Many sought employment in armament factories; over a third of the workforce was female by October 1918.
## Footnote
25% of women working had joined unions.
149
How did the war affect families and education?
Families suffered neglect from absentee parents, and education was disrupted; malnutrition caused widespread suffering.
## Footnote
Nearly 40% of children suffered from rickets.
150
How did food supplies change during WWI in Germany?
Severe food shortages; milk fell by 50%, meat and butter by 40%, and bread was rationed from January 1915.
151
What were the effects of the food shortages during and after the war?
Around 750,000 people died of starvation or malnutrition during the winter of 1918–1919.
152
What were the social conditions like in Germany by 1918?
Food supplies near exhaustion; civilians lived on 1,000 calories a day; an epidemic of Spanish flu killed over a million.
153
How did the hyperinflation of 1923 affect workers?
Workers had to be paid daily or even twice daily, many resorted to barter.
154
Who suffered the most during hyperinflation in 1923?
White-collar workers, pensioners, and those relying on savings or fixed-income sources.
155
Who benefitted from hyperinflation in 1923?
People with debts, businesspeople, and farmers in rural areas.
156
What was the welfare state like in Weimar Germany?
Expanded significantly with various social welfare programs funded by taxes and contributions.
157
What was the Youth Welfare Act of 1922?
Established a youth service aimed at promoting physical and social fitness.
158
What social welfare programs were introduced between 1918 and 1927?
Key programs included:
* Workers' benefits
* Youth Welfare Act
* Unemployment insurance
## Footnote
In 1927, unemployment relief was extended to 17.25 million workers.
159
What housing initiatives were introduced during the Weimar period?
Large-scale housing programs, especially in Frankfurt, created functional homes for working-class families.
160
How did employers resist social welfare initiatives?
Opposed some welfare provisions and lobbied for longer working hours; Ruhr industrialists locked out 250,000 workers in 1928.
161
What were the changes for women under the Weimar Republic?
Gained formal equality and the right to vote; 35.6% of women were employed by 1925.
162
How did the role of women in society evolve during the 1920s?
Despite formal equality, the idea persisted that women should remain in the home after marriage.
163
What role did contraception play in social changes for women?
Contraceptive methods became widely available, leading to smaller families; abortion remained illegal until 1926.
164
How were Jews treated in Weimar Germany?
Generally well-assimilated but faced persistent anti-Semitism, especially from right-wing nationalists.
165
How were other ethnic minorities treated in Weimar Germany?
Generally well-assimilated, with Polish schools established in the Ruhr and border areas.
166
What happened to the aristocracy after the monarchy ended?
Lost titles and privileges but remained an exclusive class, joining right-wing political parties.
167
When did the military reach its highest influence in Weimar Germany?
During World War I.
168
What were two key post-war developments that should have reduced army influence?
The November 1918 changes and the Versailles restrictions in June 1919.
169
Why did the army retain influence after 1918 despite these changes?
Due to government reliance on the army to crush left-wing revolts and the Ebert-Groener Pact.
170
Who was Army Chief from 1920 to 1926 and what was his attitude to the Republic?
Hans von Seeckt; he supported the nation but not the democratic state.
171
What right-wing group did generals cooperate with?
Stahlhelm (militant ex-servicemen's association).
172
How did German military schools contribute to army influence?
Trained officers and engaged in secret rearmament.
173
Who supported Hindenburg’s authoritarian plans from 1926?
General Kurt von Schleicher.
174
Who became Defence Minister in December 1927 and what did he oppose?
Groener; opposed socialist and pacifist criticism of the army.
175
By how much did the military budget increase from 1924 to 1928?
By 75%.
176
What was the social composition of the officer corps?
Overwhelmingly anti-republican, recruiting from nationalist and elitist backgrounds.
177
What were two key signs of greater social stability after 1924?
Decline in unrest and rising living standards.
178
Which culture expanded during the years of apparent stability (1924–1929)?
A city-based mass consumer culture.
179
What municipal developments occurred during this time?
New dance halls, libraries, swimming pools, and spectator sports.
180
What sports organisation expanded in the 1920s?
ATSB (Arbeiter Turn und Sportbund) with 500,000 members across 6,000 clubs.
181
How many cinemas existed by 1929?
500 cinemas.
182
When did radio broadcasts begin in Germany?
1923.
183
What were the limitations of radio in the 1920s?
Less than half of urban and very few rural people had reception.
184
Which technologies became more common in homes during the 1920s?
Radios, telephones, and cars.
185
How was modernism reflected in youth culture?
Through fashion, behaviour, and association with 'Americanism'.
186
What persisted in rural areas despite urban change?
Traditional entertainment, deferential behaviour, and conservative gender roles.
187
What were the main rural economic issues by 1929?
Lack of land reform, unprofitable small farms, high bankruptcies.
188
What contributed to a ‘cultural explosion’ in the 1920s?
Post-war liberalism, pain of war, and the removal of censorship.
189
What movement described the cultural style of the Weimar Republic?
Modernism.
190
What artistic movement parodied life and exposed hypocrisy?
The New Objectivity Movement (Neue Sachlichkeit).
191
Which artists used violent expressionism?
George Grosz and Otto Dix.
192
Which writers challenged Western decadence and complacency?
Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Arnold Zweig, and E. M. Remarque.
193
What was the focus of 1920s literature?
Social and political purpose over personal experience.
194
How popular was Remarque’s All Quiet on the Western Front (1929)?
Sold 500,000 copies within three months.
195
What was Zeittheater and its themes?
‘Theatre of the time’ with provocative content, e.g. anti-war themes.
196
Name a famous play and musical produced by Brecht and Weil.
Mother Courage and The Threepenny Opera (1928).
197
What kind of music did The Threepenny Opera use?
Jazz idiom to parody Weimar society.
198
What was Zeitoper and where was it performed?
Left-wing modern opera performed at the Kroll Opera House, Berlin.
199
Name two provocative Weimar-era films.
The Cabinet of Dr Caligari and The Blue Angel.
200
What did Metropolis by Fritz Lang critique?
Mechanised future and class division in modern society.
201
What was the Bauhaus movement and who led it?
Architectural modernism led by Walter Gropius, founded in 1919.
202
What was Gropius’ goal with Bauhaus?
To unite crafts and art, using geometric, functional design.
203
Which painter worked with Gropius?
Paul Klee.
204
What were new trends in youth culture?
Chewing gum, cigarettes, cropped hairstyles, dance halls, and jazz.
205
What city was considered the avant-garde capital of Europe?
Berlin.
206
What cultural freedoms did Berlin gain a reputation for?
Liberated nightlife, same-sex tolerance, and promiscuity.
207
What law did the Reichstag pass in 1926?
A law to protect youth from pulp fiction and pornography.
208
Who was fined for defaming the military?
Artist George Grosz.
209
What forms of censorship were imposed?
Länder governments set their own censorship rules.
210
What were conservative groups opposed to?
Female emancipation, nudism, homosexuality, and Americanisation.
211
How did Nazis respond to Weimar culture?
Disrupted performances and criticised 'un-German' behaviour.
212
Which book reinforced anti-democratic views and when was it published?
Decline of the West by Oswald Spengler (1918, reissued 1923).
213
What was Spengler’s core argument?
Democracy symbolised decline; only an 'elite of heroes' could save nations.
