The Kaiserreich, 1871-1914 Flashcards
(183 cards)
1
Q
What stimulated the German economy and created national euphoria?
A
Franco-Prussian War, which ended in 1871 with the German victory and the unification of Germany.
2
Q
Who were the Reichstag in the German constitution?
A
National parliament and could except and reject legislation but only had limited powers in making new laws.
Elected every 3 years.
3
Q
Who were the Bundasrat in the German constitution?
A
Made up of 58 members who were nominated by the state assemblies (the 25 states).
Consent needed from Bundasrat to pass laws and had the power to veto them.
However, in practice they rubber stamped the chancellors policies.
4
Q
How was the constitution formed around Prussian dominance?
A
Had around 60% of the population and 2/3 of the land mass.
Had 17 seats in the Bundestag and could block any unwanted constitutional amendments.
5
Q
What were the largest parties from 1871-1912?
A
National Liberals - 1871-1881.
Zentrum - 1881-1887.
NL+Zentrum - 1887-1890.
Zentrum - 1890-1912.
6
Q
A
7
Q
When and where was the German Empire proclaimed?
A
In May 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, following the Franco-Prussian War.
8
Q
What was the ‘Second Reich’?
A
The Second Reich was the German Empire founded in 1871, succeeding the Holy Roman Empire (First Reich) and preceding Nazi Germany (Third Reich).
9
Q
Who became the first Kaiser of the Second Reich?
A
Wilhelm I, King of Prussia, became Kaiser in 1871.
10
Q
What role did Bismarck play in the creation of the German Empire?
A
Otto von Bismarck, Prussian Minister-President (from 1862), unified Germany through wars against Austria (1866) and France (1870–71).
11
Q
How many states made up the German Empire in 1871?
A
26 states, including kingdoms like Bavaria and Saxony, grand duchies, and free cities.
12
Q
What percentage of the Empire did Prussia comprise?
A
Over 60% of the area and a similar proportion of the population.
13
Q
What federal principle governed the new Empire?
A
The Empire was a federal state, where individual Länder retained control over education, local government, agriculture, courts, and churches.
14
Q
What aspects of the constitution were democratic?
A
- Reichstag elected by all males over 25
- Deputies had freedom of speech
- Reichstag consent needed for all laws and annual budget
- Elections held every 3 years
15
Q
What aspects were undemocratic?
A
- Kaiser could appoint/dismiss the Chancellor
- Chancellor only accountable to the Kaiser, not Reichstag
- Reichstag could not amend laws or remove ministers
- Bundesrat could veto legislation
- Prussia dominated the Bundesrat with 17 of 58 votes
16
Q
What powers did the Kaiser have under the constitution?
A
- Head of armed forces
- Could declare war, dissolve Reichstag, and control foreign policy
- Appointed Chancellor and ministers
- Had final say on constitutional disputes
17
Q
What was the role of the Bundesrat?
A
- Upper house of 58 members from state governments
- Prussia had 17 votes
- Presided over by the Chancellor
- Could initiate legislation and veto most laws
18
Q
What positions did Bismarck hold?
A
Prussian Prime Minister, Foreign Minister, Reich Chancellor, and President of the Bundesrat.
19
Q
How did Bismarck maintain power?
A
- Dependent on the Kaiser’s support
- Avoided cabinet government; interfered in ministerial appointments
- Manipulated the Reichstag; threatened to dissolve it to increase support
- Held no personal power if he lost the Kaiser’s backing
20
Q
In what ways was the Empire Prussia-dominated?
A
- Kaiser was King of Prussia
- Chancellor was Minister-President of Prussia
- Prussia had 17 of 58 Bundesrat votes
- Prussian law codes, army model, and bureaucracy shaped the Empire
- Prussian Parliament elected by a three-class franchise favouring the elite
21
Q
Who were the National Liberals and what did they support?
A
Formed 1867, supported Bismarck and unification, Protestant middle class, backed free trade and constitutionalism; became more conservative post-1875.
22
Q
What was the Centre Party (Zentrum) known for?
A
Founded 1870, represented Catholics, strong in southern states and Rhineland, supported Catholic Church and decentralisation, but also social reform.
23
Q
When was the SPD founded and what were its aims?
A
Founded 1875, represented working class, supported welfare reform and reducing elite power. Some members supported revolution, most worked within the system.
24
Q
What did the German Conservative Party (DKP) represent?
A
Formed 1876, represented Prussian Junker landowners, right-wing, anti-Reichstag, dominant in Prussian Landtag via the three-stage voting system.
25
Who were the Free Conservatives (FKP)?
Formed 1871, supported Bismarck, represented landowners, industrialists, and businessmen.
26
What were the beliefs of the Progressives (DFP)?
Favoured liberal constitutionalism, opposed militarism and centralism, wanted to increase Reichstag powers.
27
What type of government was created in 1871?
A federal empire with autocratic leadership, an elected parliament, and universal male suffrage, but dominated by Prussia and authoritarian rule.
28
Why is the constitution of 1871 considered both democratic and undemocratic?
It included elections and parliamentary consent, but ultimate power lay with the Kaiser, Chancellor, and Bundesrat, especially Prussia.
29
Who were the two key figures in German politics from 1871 to 1888?
Kaiser Wilhelm I and Otto von Bismarck
## Footnote
Wilhelm I was Kaiser from 1871 until his death in 1888. Bismarck ruled for 26 years, 19 of them as Imperial Chancellor.
30
What was Kaiser Wilhelm I's leadership style?
Traditional Prussian aristocrat, allowed Bismarck to take initiative in political matters
## Footnote
He was 74 when he became Emperor and 91 when he died.
31
How did Bismarck maintain control despite lacking a large political party?
Through sheer force of personality, political manipulation, hard work, and intelligence
## Footnote
He disliked working with the Reichstag but recognized its importance.
32
What were the main political parties in the 1871 Reichstag elections?
National Liberal Party, Imperial Liberal Party, Zentrum (Centre Party), German Conservative Party, Free Conservatives, Progressives, Socialists, National Groups & Others
## Footnote
Total seats: 382
33
What was the significance of the National Liberal Party in 1871?
Supported Bismarck's goals for unification and had the largest number of seats (125)
## Footnote
This allowed Bismarck to pass over 100 laws for administrative and economic unification.
34
What were the key economic and administrative reforms passed after 1871?
* Establishment of the Reichsbank (1876)
* Introduction of a new currency (the Mark) backed by gold
* Uniform commercial law, abolition of internal tariffs, and a national postal system
* National penal code (1872), and a supreme court in Leipzig (1879)
* Expansion of the railway network
35
What was the Kulturkampf and when did it begin?
A campaign against the Catholic Church and its influence, began in 1871
## Footnote
Kulturkampf means 'struggle for culture'.
36
Why did Bismarck launch the Kulturkampf?
* Catholics made up 37% of the Empire
* The Pope's 1864 Syllabus of Errors and 1870 Doctrine of Papal Infallibility were seen as anti-liberal
* Zentrum was the second-largest party (63 seats) and seen as a political threat
37
What were the May Laws of 1873?
* Priests required to study in Germany and pass state exams
* Clergy under state supervision
* Civil marriage made compulsory
* All religious orders dissolved
* Clergy appointments made by the state
38
What were the implications of the Kulturkampf by 1876?
* All Prussian and Polish bishops imprisoned or exiled
* 1,400 out of 4,600 Catholic parishes without priests
* State subsidies to dioceses could be suspended
* Civil registration of births, marriages, deaths moved to state
39
How did the Kulturkampf end and why?
* Bismarck needed Catholic support to move away from liberal free trade
* Wanted alliance with Catholic Austria
* Protestant unease and fear of rising socialism
* Death of Pope Pius IX (1878) and more liberal Pope Leo XIII
40
What was the political result of the Kulturkampf's failure?
* Zentrum became a loyal, religious party
* Bismarck freed from National Liberal reliance
* Unity was not strengthened; divisions intensified
41
What was the Septennial Law of 1874?
A compromise forcing Bismarck to allow the Reichstag to vote on the army budget every seven years
42
Why did Bismarck turn to protectionism after 1878?
* To protect Junker landowners from cheap foreign grain
* To raise revenue independent of the Reichstag
* To retaliate against Russia
* To strengthen alliances with Conservatives and Zentrum
43
What political changes occurred in 1878–79?
* 1878: National Liberals lost 29 seats in elections
* 1879: Bismarck passed tariff laws with Conservative/Zentrum support
44
What was the impact of protectionism?
* Strengthened conservative alliance
* Raised food prices, boosting socialist support
* Bismarck showed his political control and ability to shift alliances
45
What led to the Anti-Socialist Law of 1878?
* Two assassination attempts on Kaiser Wilhelm I
* Bismarck blamed the SPD and used it to pass the Anti-Socialist Law in October 1878
46
What did the Anti-Socialist Law do?
* Banned socialist meetings, publications, and trade unions
* Increased police powers
* Imprisoned ~15,000 socialists
* Law renewed four times until 1890
47
What was the result of the Anti-Socialist Law?
* SPD seats rose from 9 in 1878 to 35 by 1890
* SPD vote more than doubled
* Membership reached 1.5 million
48
What was Bismarck’s ‘State Socialism’?
* 1883: Medical insurance
* 1884: Accident insurance
* 1889: Old-age pensions
49
How did Bismarck treat national minorities?
* Poles & Jews: Expelled 34,000 in 1885–86, enforced German-only education and courts
* North Schleswig: Denied plebiscite promised in 1879
* Alsace-Lorraine: More lenient with humane governors
50
Who was Adolf Stoecker and how did he relate to Bismarck's policies?
Founded the Christian Socialist Workers' Party in 1878, an anti-Semitic party
## Footnote
Bismarck briefly courted this party for political support but forced Stoecker to withdraw from public life in 1889.
51
What was the relationship between Bismarck and anti-Semitism?
Bismarck was not personally anti-Semitic but used anti-Semitic sentiment for political needs
52
What key political compromise did Bismarck's Empire represent?
A conservative and federal compromise that appeased traditional leaders while being liberal enough to win over the middle-classes
53
What was the political shift during the 1870s and 1880s in Germany?
Bismarck set up institutions along liberal lines in the 1870s, but there was a conservative shift in the 1880s
54
What was the war scare crisis of 1886-1887?
A crisis where French Minister of War made war-like threats, which Bismarck used for political gain
55
How did Bismarck view the Reichstag?
Stormy relationship; preferred autocracy over democracy and often clashed with the Reichstag
56
What caused the end of Bismarck’s alliance with the National Liberals?
Clashes over issues like the Press Law, military budget, economic protection, and Anti-Socialist Law
57
What was the significance of the Reichstag elections in 1881?
The Progressive Party gained the most seats, increasing opposition to Bismarck
58
How did Bismarck deal with opposition in the Reichstag between 1881-1886?
Struggled to create stable majorities and formed temporary alliances to pass legislation
59
What happened in 1887 regarding the war scare crisis?
Bismarck dissolved the Reichstag after facing opposition to a tax increase for army growth.
General Boulanger the french minister of war wanted revenge for the french defeat of 1971 and the return of Alsace Lorraine. When the Germans arrested a french official on the border of Alsace, Boulanger made war like threats and Bismark used it as evidence of a war to get the RS on his side.
60
What led to Bismarck’s resignation in 1890?
Deterioration of relationship with Kaiser Wilhelm II over various issues
61
What was the significance of the Anti-Socialist Bill of 1890?
Proposed a permanent Anti-Socialist Bill but was rejected, leading to increased support for the SPD
62
Who succeeded Kaiser Wilhelm I and what impact did this have on Bismarck?
Kaiser Wilhelm II became Kaiser in 1888 and disagreed with Bismarck, contributing to his resignation
63
What was 'Sammlungspolitik' and how did it affect German politics?
'Bringing together politics' aimed to unite political parties in support of the state
64
What was the role of the political parties in Bismarck's Germany?
Political parties were secondary but key ones included National Liberals, SPD, Zentrum, and Conservatives
65
What happened during the Kulturkampf (1871-1878)?
Conflict between Bismarck and the Catholic Church, weakening the Zentrum party
66
How did the death of Frederick impact Bismarck's political future?
Frederick's death led to his son Wilhelm II becoming Kaiser, who disagreed with Bismarck and forced his resignation
67
What was the issue with Bismarck’s constitution and political system by the 1880s?
His authoritarian constitution became less adaptable to Germany's changing political landscape
68
What was the impact of Bismarck's policies on divisions within Germany?
Intensified divisions in Germany due to confrontational policies against the Catholic Church and socialists
69
How long did Frederick rule, and what was the cause of his death?
Ruled for only 99 days; died from throat cancer after a prolonged illness
70
Who was Kaiser Wilhelm II and when did he come to power?
Kaiser Wilhelm II was the ruler of Germany from 1888 until his abdication in 1918.
## Footnote
Became Kaiser in 1888 at the age of 27. Known for his energetic and ambitious personality.
71
What were some of the personal characteristics of Kaiser Wilhelm II?
Born with a limp left arm, defective hearing, and partial paralysis.
* Strict upbringing to overcome disabilities
* Possibly a repressed homosexual
* Known for his sadistic sense of humor and childish pranks
## Footnote
E.g., slapping King Ferdinand of Bulgaria, forcing General Hülsen to perform a ballet.
72
What was the relationship between Kaiser Wilhelm II and his chancellors?
Wilhelm II desired to control the government, declaring in 1891: 'There is only one man in charge of the Reich, and I will not tolerate any other.'
* Relied heavily on military figures
* Resulted in the frequent replacement of chancellors.
73
Who was General Leo Caprivi and what were his policies as Chancellor (1890-1894)?
General Leo Caprivi served as Chancellor from 1890 to 1894.
* His 'new course' included:
* Ending the Anti-Socialist Law
* Reducing tariffs
* Recognizing trade unions
* Introducing social reforms
## Footnote
Supported by socialists, industrialists, and the Zentrum.
74
What challenges did Caprivi face as Chancellor?
Caprivi struggled to work with the Kaiser, especially on military service and education issues.
* Proposed higher taxes due to military spending
* Rise of socialism led to Wilhelm II’s push for Anti-Socialist legislation
## Footnote
Caprivi’s inability to manage these challenges led to his resignation.
75
Who was Prince Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst and his role as Chancellor (1894-1900)?
Served as Chancellor from 1894 to 1900.
* Was 75 years old when appointed
* Introduced two bills against socialism, both rejected by the Reichstag
## Footnote
Referred to as the Kaiser’s 'straw doll.'
76
Who was Count Bernhard von Bülow and his policies as Chancellor (1900-1909)?
Count Bernhard von Bülow served as Chancellor from 1900 to 1909.
* Shifted away from anti-socialist policies
* Introduced the 1902 tariff law
* Extended accident and health insurance
## Footnote
Known for flattery, earning the nickname 'the eel.'
77
What were the challenges Bülow faced as Chancellor?
Failed to control the Reichstag and win approval for military spending.
* Struggled to secure higher taxes
* Attempted to form a new coalition ('Bülow Bloc') in 1907
## Footnote
Relations with the Kaiser deteriorated by 1905.
78
What was the Hottentot Election of 1907 about?
The election was fought on the issue of support for Bülow's policies in South-West Africa.
* Zentrum and SPD opposed the government’s imperial policies
* Campaign branded the SPD and Zentrum as 'unpatriotic.'
79
What was the situation with Germany's national debt between 1900 and 1908?
The national debt doubled during this period.
* Conservatives and Agrarian League favored increased taxation on consumer goods
* Socialists and Progressive Liberals wanted property and inheritance taxes raised.
80
What happened with Bülow’s finance bill in 1909?
Bülow's finance bill of June 1909 was defeated.
* Opposed by a coalition of Conservatives, Zentrum, Progressive Liberals, and Socialists
* Bülow resigned shortly after.
81
Who was Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg and what were his challenges as Chancellor?
Bethmann-Hollweg served as Chancellor from 1909 to 1917.
* Faced the impossible task of reconciling a budget deficit with military expenditure demands.
82
What significant reform was passed under Bethmann-Hollweg's leadership in 1911?
In 1911, universal male suffrage at 21 years was introduced.
## Footnote
This was a significant democratic reform passed despite opposition from conservatives.
83
How did the SPD perform in the 1912 elections?
The SPD became the largest party in the Reichstag.
* One in three Germans voted for the SPD
* Formed a left-wing majority with Progressive Liberals.
84
What happened in the Reichstag in 1913 regarding military expenditure?
In July 1913, the Reichstag agreed to a large increase in the size of the army.
* Funded by a special ‘defence tax’ on property.
85
What did Bethmann-Hollweg do after losing support in the Reichstag?
After the no-confidence vote in 1913, Bethmann-Hollweg stopped working through the Reichstag.
* Issued imperial decrees without consultation.
86
What was the political situation in Germany in 1913-1914?
Germany faced an escalating debt crisis and frequent strikes.
* Support for the SPD grew
* The Kaiser’s prestige was diminishing.
87
What was the role of the Reichstag in relation to the Kaiser’s power?
The Reichstag had the power to approve or reject laws.
* The Kaiser had final authority and often overstepped his constitutional position.
88
What were the consequences of the Kaiser’s 1908 interview with the Daily Telegraph?
The interview worsened relations with Britain and caused a furore in Germany.
* Led to Bülow's resignation.
89
What was the Zabern Affair in 1913?
The Zabern Affair involved excessive military actions leading to public outcry.
* The military acted without regard for the rule of law.
90
What was the historiographical debate about Kaiser Wilhelm II's power?
John Röhl argued that Wilhelm II exercised significant personal rule.
* Hans-Ulrich Wehler suggested economic forces shaped policies.
91
How did political parties and opposition change from 1890 to 1914?
The period saw a huge increase in political activity.
* Support for the SPD grew, and right-wing nationalist groups gained power.
92
What role did the SPD play in German politics after 1890?
After 1890, the SPD grew significantly, especially after the lapse of the Anti-Socialist Laws.
* The SPD organized local societies, rallies, and festivals.
93
Who was Carl Legien and what role did he play?
Carl Legien (1860–1920) was a key figure in the trade union movement.
* Founded the General Federation of Trade Unions in 1890.
94
What role did the Catholic Zentrum and the Liberals play in German politics?
The Zentrum was united in protecting Church interests but divided on other issues.
* The Liberals supported business interests and were divided into right-wing and left-wing factions.
95
How did the right-wing groups influence German politics?
Right-wing groups opposed socialism and democracy.
* Supported the Kaiser's policies and advocated for military expansion.
96
What impact did the 1871 political unification have on Germany's economy?
It allowed better coordination of industry across the Empire and gave a financial boost via the French indemnity and 1871 currency reform, which provided easy credit and stimulated industrial growth.
97
How fast did Germany’s economy grow between 1871–1873?
At an annual rate of 5%.
98
What major economic challenge hit Germany between 1873 and 1896?
The 'Great Depression', a world trade recession, which led to slower and intermittent growth, particularly affecting textiles and engineering from c.1876.
99
When did Germany’s economy return to strong, steady growth after the Depression?
After 1894.
100
By how much did Germany’s industrial production grow between 1890 and 1914?
It tripled.
101
What was the sectoral share of Germany’s GNP in 1914?
Industry: 45%, Agriculture: 25%, Commercial/services: 30%.
102
What were the annual industrial growth rates in late Imperial Germany?
Approximately 4.5% annually.
103
How did agriculture's contribution to the economy change by 1914?
It fell from 35–40% pre-1880s to just 25%.
104
What were Germany's coal and steel production levels in 1871 and 1913?
1871: Coal – 29.4m tonnes, Steel – 0.2m tonnes
1890: Coal - 109.3m tonnes, Steel - 2.2m tonnes.
1913: Coal – 191.5m tonnes, Steel – 17.9m tonnes.
105
How did Germany’s railway network grow from 1871 to 1913?
1871: 21,471 km; 1913: 63,000 km.
106
Name key factors that contributed to Germany's economic growth post-1871.
* Population growth (younger, mobile, skilled workforce)
* Abundant raw materials (coal in Ruhr/Saar/Silesia, iron ore/potash in Alsace-Lorraine)
* Good geography (navigable rivers and flat land for transport)
* Excellent education system (technical and science skills)
* Strong banking sector (e.g. Deutsche Bank, close business ties)
* Large firms and cartels (joint-stock companies and pooling of resources)
* Supportive government (tariffs, trade treaties, shipping subsidies)
107
How did the number of cartels change from 1875 to 1911?
1875: 8 cartels; 1887: 70; 1900: 300; 1911: 600.
108
Give examples of major German cartels by 1911.
* Rhenish-Westphalian Coal Syndicate (1893): controlled 50% of coal/coke
* Steel Union (1904): included 30 major steelworks like Krupps
* Dyestuff cartel: 5 companies controlled 90% of output.
109
What industries dominated Germany’s first industrial revolution?
Textiles, coal, iron, steel, and railways ('old industries').
110
What characterised Germany’s second industrial revolution post-1890?
Growth in advanced technology sectors like electricals, chemicals, machinery, and motor cars ('new industries').
111
By the early 1900s, what proportion of the world’s chemical dyes did Germany produce?
Over 75% – establishing a virtual monopoly.
112
How much sulphuric acid did Germany produce by 1907 compared to global output in 1878?
1878 (global): 1m tonnes; 1907 (Germany alone): 1.4m tonnes.
113
How did ammonia production grow from 1897 to 1907?
From 84,000 tonnes to 287,000 tonnes. Also except answer (more than tripled)
114
What other industries did Germany lead in by early 20th century?
* Pharmaceuticals
* Artificial fibres
* Photographic materials
* Plastics
* Explosives.
115
In 1910, how did Germany's steel production compare with Britain and France?
* Germany: 13.8m tonnes
* Britain: 5.9m tonnes
* France: 3.4m tonnes.
116
What was the size of the German merchant marine by 1913?
Three times the size of the USA’s, though only 25% of Britain’s.
117
What metaphor did Norman Davies use to describe late Imperial Germany?
A 'magnificent machine with one loose cog' – modern and strong but unstable under the surface.
118
How did Norman Davies describe Germany’s global economic status by 1914?
'An economic giant but a political dwarf.'
119
How did the Kaiser and elites view Germany's position in the world?
With arrogance and psychological resentment over perceived disadvantages like smaller colonial holdings.
120
Where did the German electrical industry grow most rapidly and why?
In the Rhine area, because generators could be powered by waste gases from steelworks.
121
Which German company led in electrical production and what was Germany’s global position by 1913?
Siemens; by 1913 Germany controlled 50% of the world’s trade in electricals.
122
How much electrical goods did Germany export compared to Britain and the USA by 1913?
Germany exported £11 million-worth, compared to £8 million combined for Britain and the USA.
123
By how much did German electrical energy production increase between 1901 and 1915?
By 150%.
124
Which German companies led in the motor and aviation industries?
* Daimler
* Diesel
* Benz
* Mercedes (motor)
* Zeppelin (aviation).
125
What changes did Loewe and Wolf machine-works make in 1899?
Rebuilt factories using American mass production methods.
126
When did Karl Benz build the first two-stroke engine and establish the Benz Company?
First engine in 1879, Benz Company founded in 1883.
127
What did Karl Benz patent in 1886?
A three-wheeled 'automobile' with a four-stroke engine.
128
What was the world’s first mass-produced car and when was it launched?
The Benz Velo, in 1893.
129
When did Benz and Daimler merge?
1926, forming Daimler-Benz.
130
What policy drove industrial development under Wilhelm II?
Weltpolitik – an expansionist foreign policy aiming for global power.
131
According to Michael Stürmer, how did German industry support Weltpolitik?
Via state contracts, integration of old/new industry, education, marketing, and government-funded colleges. Industry also boosted military/naval strength and imperialism.
132
How many Germans were employed in agriculture by 1907?
35% of the population – four times more than in Britain.
133
What products came from Junker estates and peasant holdings?
* Rye, beet (Junkers)
* Cereals, fruit, vegetables, wine, livestock, dairy (peasants).
134
How much land was brought under cultivation, and what was Germany’s potato production?
4 million acres; 40 million tonnes of potatoes/year.
135
What were the effects of protectionist tariffs on agriculture?
Supported farmers, blocked cheap Russian/American grain, but raised food prices and limited diversification.
136
What challenges did German agriculture face?
Synthetic foods, refrigeration, high costs, rural labour shortages, increased debt.
137
List three key signs of agricultural decline between 1871 and 1914.
* Agricultural prices fell overall.
* Late 1870s bad harvests led to US grain imports.
* Railways exposed rural areas to competition.
138
What percentage of the population worked in agriculture in 1871 vs. 1907?
50% in 1871, down to 35% by 1907.
139
How did agriculture's share of GNP change from 1871 to 1914?
Fell from 35–40% to 25%.
140
What types of crops and farming practices helped agriculture survive?
Root crops like potatoes and sugar beet encouraged crop rotation, fertiliser use, and machinery.
141
How did farming become more business-oriented?
Farms became better organised, employing seasonal workers and aiming for profit.
142
By how much did German exports and imports grow between 1880 and 1913?
They quadrupled.
143
What were Germany’s import/export values in 1890 and 1913?
* 1890: £200m imports / £153m exports
* 1913: £526m imports / £495m exports.
144
What helped cover Germany’s trade gap?
'Invisibles': foreign investments (£1000m) and income from shipping and banking.
145
What were Germany’s main export destinations?
* Britain
* France
* Russia (60%)
* Informal empire (Latin America, South Africa, Ottoman Empire).
146
What were the effects of surplus capital investment by 1914?
Germany became the third-largest creditor nation, after Britain and France.
147
What prompted the shift from free trade to protection in 1879?
Economic slowdown, pressure from Junkers and manufacturers. Tariffs introduced after 1878 lobbying.
148
What was the Central Association of German Manufacturers and when was it formed?
A pressure group formed in 1878 to support tariffs.
149
How did Caprivi handle tariffs in the 1890s?
Lowered agricultural tariffs via trade deals with Russia, Austria, Romania.
150
When were high tariffs restored and how long did they last?
Restored under Bülow in 1902, remained until WWI.
151
Name four key German economic pressure groups and their founding years.
* Industrialists' League (1895)
* Imperial League (1904)
* Hansabund (1909)
* Imperial German Mittelstand Confederation (1911).
152
What was the population of Germany on the eve of war in 1914?
68 million – a 60% increase since unification in 1871.
153
When did the fastest population growth in Germany occur before 1914?
In the 1890s and early 1900s.
154
How much did real wages increase between 1895 and 1913?
25%.
155
What percentage of the German population still lived at or below the poverty line before 1914?
30%.
156
How did urbanisation progress from 1871 to 1910?
Urban population increased from 36.1% in 1871 to 60.0% in 1910.
157
What were the rural and urban population percentages in 1910?
40% rural, 60% urban.
158
What class dominated German politics and society in the Kaiserreich?
The elites – especially the Prussian Junkers.
159
Name three powerful industrial elite families in Germany.
* Krupps
* Thyssens
* Hugenbergs
160
Who made up the ‘upper middle class’ in urban areas?
Industrial managers, engineers, doctors, lawyers.
161
What was the ‘Mittelstand’?
The lower middle class – clerks, shopkeepers, small businessmen.
162
What were the three tiers of the urban working class?
* Highly-skilled workers and foremen
* Semi-skilled workers (e.g. coal miners)
* Unskilled workers – the ‘Lumpenproletariat’
163
How did peasant life vary in Germany before 1914?
Some owned land and employed others, while landless labourers faced instability.
164
Why were Junker landowners under threat economically?
Falling agricultural incomes, especially on smaller or eastern estates.
165
What was the Bund Deutscher Frauenvereine and when was it founded?
A women’s rights umbrella organisation founded in 1894.
166
What did August Bebel and the SPD advocate for in terms of gender?
Female equality and the vote for women – though they were unsuccessful.
167
How did industrialisation affect working-class women?
Many performed piece-work or worked in sweatshops.
168
What were Bismarck’s three social welfare reforms and when were they introduced?
* Medical Insurance (May 1883)
* Accident Insurance (June 1884)
* Old-Age Pensions (May 1889)
169
Who funded medical and accident insurance under Bismarck?
* Medical insurance: joint employer-employee
* Accident insurance: employers only
170
What was the age qualification for old-age pensions introduced in 1889?
Over 70 years old.
171
Which two figures helped continue reforming legislation after Bismarck?
* Caprivi
* Posadowsky-Wehner
172
When were trade unions allowed to arbitrate in wage disputes and join tribunals?
From 1890.
173
When were industrial arbitration courts made compulsory in large towns?
1901.
174
What was the ‘alliance of steel and rye’?
Cooperation between industrial elites and landed elites to strengthen Germany.
175
Which pressure group promoted anti-Semitic and nationalist views?
The Pan-German League.
176
What ideology did Houston Stewart Chamberlain promote and when did he publish it?
Social Darwinism and Aryan superiority in 1899.
177
What role did the military play in German society before 1914?
Dominant and prestigious – soldiers swore loyalty to the Kaiser.
178
How large was the German army by 1914 and how did it compare to 1890?
4 million men – eight times the size it had been in 1890.
179
What was Germany’s military expenditure in 1913–14?
£60 million.
180
What was the Zabern Affair and when did it happen?
In November 1913, German soldiers violently dispersed a protest in Alsace.
181
What was the traditional annual celebration of German military pride?
Sedan Day.
182
How long did the Reichstag vote on military budgets from 1874 and 1893?
Every 7 years from 1874; every 5 years from 1893.
183
What was the status of women’s property in marriage before 1914?
Women's property legally became their husband's on marriage.
