(Done) Infection and response (Paper 1) Flashcards
(63 cards)
1
Q
Define pathogen
A
- Microorganisms that can enter the body and cause communicable disease
2
Q
List the types of pathogen
A
- Bacteria
- Virus
- Fungi
- Protist
3
Q
What are bacteria
A
- Very small cells which can reproduce rapidly within your body
4
Q
What are viruses
A
- Viruses are not cells but can also reproduce rapidly within your body
5
Q
What are protists
A
- Single-celled eukaryotes, sometimes parasites
6
Q
What are fungi
A
- Unicellular or multicellular organisms that spread through spores
7
Q
Explain the ways in which pathogens can spread
A
- Water - drinking or bathing in it
- Air - breathed in
- Direct contact - touching contaminated surfaces
8
Q
List the required pathogens and what category of pathogen they fall under (7)
A
Viruses
- Measles
- HIV
- Tobacco mosaic virus
Fungi
- Rose black spot
Protist
- Malaria
Bacteria
- Salmonella
- Gonorrhoea
9
Q
How does measles spread
A
- Through tiny droplets from an infected person’s sneeze or cough
10
Q
Symptoms of measles
A
- Red skin rash and a fever
11
Q
How can you prevent measles
A
- Vaccination
12
Q
How does HIV spread
A
- Sexual contact or by exchanging body fluids such as blood
13
Q
Symptoms of HIV
A
- flu-like symptoms for a few weeks, then normally the carrier does not have any symptoms for several years
14
Q
How does HIV damage the people it infects
A
- Attacks immune cells
15
Q
How can you prevent HIV
A
- Antiretroviral drugs
16
Q
What does tobacco mosaic virus affect
A
- Many species of plant (not just tobacco you dumbass, don’t you dare mark this as 5 I know you thought tobacco)
17
Q
Symptoms of tobacco mosaic virus
A
- Causes a mosaic pattern on the leaves
- Leaves become discoloured
18
Q
How does tobacco mosaic virus damage the plants it affects
A
- The discolouration it causes reduces photosynthesis so growth of the plant is slowed
19
Q
Symptoms of rose black spot
A
- Black spots on rose plant leaves
- The leaves can later become yellow and drop off
20
Q
How does rose black spot damage the plant it affects
A
- The black spots and yellow leaves make less photosynthesis happen so growth is affected negatively
21
Q
How does rose black spot spread
A
- Through the environment via water or wind
22
Q
How can rose black spot be prevented
A
- Treatment with fungicides
- Stripping and destroying the affected leaves to prevent further spread
23
Q
How does malaria spread
A
- Via a vector (mosquito) inserting the protist into the bloodstream through feeding
24
Q
Symptoms of malaria
A
- Repeating and possibly fatal fever episodes
25
How can you prevent the spread of malaria
- Preventing mosquito breeding
- Protection from mosquitos via insecticides or mosquito nets
26
Symptoms of salmonella
- Fever, stomach cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea
27
What causes the symptoms of salmonella
- Toxins release by the bacteria
28
How can you get salmonella
- Eating food contaminated with salmonella, e.g. eating chicken that caught salmonella while alive or eating food that has been contaminated during preparation
29
How can salmonella be prevented
- Vaccinating poultry to control the spread of the disease
30
How can you get gonorrhoea
- Unprotected sex
31
Symptoms of gonorrhoea
- Pain when urinating
- Thick green or yellow discharge from genitals
32
How can gonorrhoea be prevented
- Originally treated with penicillin until it developed resistance
- Antibiotics
- barrier methods of contraception
33
How can we reduce or prevent spread of disease
- Being hygienic - e.g. washing hands
- Destroying vectors e.g. Killing insect vectors via insecticides
- Isolating infected individuals - Prevents them from passing it on
- Vaccination - Less likely to develop and pass on illness
34
What are the natural disease defence systems
- Skin - Acts as a barrier - secretes antimicrobial substances
- Hairs and mucus in nose - Trap particles that could contain pathogens
- Trachea and bronchi - Secrete mucus to trap - Lined with cilia which waft the mucus to where it can be swallowed
- Stomach - Hydrochloric acid kills pathogens
35
What are three phases of attack for white blood cells
- Consuming them
- Producing antibodies
- Producing anti toxins
36
Define phagocytosis
- When white blood cells engulf and digest pathogens
37
Define antigen
- The unique molecules on the surface of a pathogen
38
Describe the process of producing antibodies
- When certain white blood cells come across a foreign antigen they will start to produce proteins called antibodies to lock onto the invading cells so that they can be found and destroyed by other white blood cells
- Antibodies produced are specific to that type of antigen
39
Why do white blood cells produce antitoxins
- To counteract toxins produced by the invading bacteria
40
How do vaccines reduce and prevent the spread of disease
- When you are infected with a pathogen, it takes white blood cells a few days to learn how to deal with it
- Vaccinations involve injecting small amounts of dead or inactive pathogens
- These carry antigens which cause the body to develop the necessary antibodies even though the antigen is harmless
41
Pros of vaccination
- Helps control common communicable diseases
- Helps control epidemic outbreaks e.g. covid
42
Cons of vaccination
- Sometimes vaccines do not give immunity
- Some can have a bad reaction to vaccines
43
Why are antibiotics unable to kill viruses
- Viruses reproduce using your body cells, which makes it difficult to develop drugs that destroy just the virus without killing the body's cells
44
What does aspirin do and what is it made from
- Used as a pain killer and to treat a low fever
- Developed from a chemical found in willow
45
What does digitalis do and what is it made from
- Used to treat heart conditions
- Developed from a chemical found in foxgloves
46
How was penicillin discovered
- Alexander Fleming was clearing out some petri dishes containing bacteria
- He noticed that one of the petri dishes also had mould on it
- The area around the mould was completely free from bacteria
47
What are the three stages in drug testing
- Testing the drugs on human cells and tissue
- Testing the drugs on live animals
- Testing the drugs on human volunteers (Clinical trials)
48
What are the steps in clinical trials
- Drug is tested on healthy volunteers to test for side effects
- Drug is tested on people suffering from the illness
49
Define blind clinical trials
- The patient in the study doesn't know whether they are getting the drug or the placebo
50
Define double blind trials
- Neither the patient nor the doctor knows who is getting the placebo or the drug until after the trials
51
What are B-lymphocytes
- A type of white blood cell that produces antibodies
52
How are monoclonal antibodies produced
- Fusing a B-lymphocyte with a fast dividing tumor cell to produce a hybridoma
- Hybridoma cells can be cloned to get lots of identical cells these cells produce the same antibodies (monoclonal antibodies) and will get collected and purified
53
Properties of monoclonal antibodies
- Will only bind to one type of antigen
- Can be made to bind to any specific antigen
54
Use of monoclonal antibodies in pregnancy tests
- HCG is a hormone contained within a pregnant woman's urine
- Blue beads are attached to the antibodies that bind to the HCG at the beginning
- The test strip has antibodies fixed to it
- The HCG binds to the antibodies attached to the blue beads
- The urine moves up the stick, carrying the hormones and the beads
- The blue beads bind to the antibodies that are fixed in place, turning the test strip blue
55
Use of monoclonal antibodies in treating diseases
- Unique cells in the body have unique antigens on their surface for the antibodies to bind to
- Cancer cells have antigens on their surface that are not found anywhere else in the body
- An anti-cancer drug, potentially a radioactive source, a toxin or a chemical that prevents growth and division, is attached to the antibody which binds to the unique cancerous cell antigen, preventing the development of cancer
56
Use of monoclonal antibodies in research to find specific substances
- Binding to hormones and other chemicals in the blood to measure their levels
- Testing blood samples in laboratories for certain pathogens
- Locate certain molecules on a cell or in tissue
57
Issues with monoclonal antibodies
- Cause fevers, vomiting and low blood pressure
58
Effects of lacking certain minerals in plants
- Nitrates are needed to make proteins and therefore growth
- Lack of nitrates causes stunted growth
- Magnesium ions are needed for making chlorophyl and therefore performing photosynthesis
- Plants without enough magnesium will suffer from chlorosis and will have yellow leaves
59
Symptoms of disease in plants
- Stunted growth
- Spots on leaves
- Patches of decay
- Abnormal growth
- Malformed stems
- Discoloration
- Presence of pests
60
How can diseases in plants be identified
- Looking up the symptoms in a gardening manual or website
- Taking the infected plant to a laboratory where the pathogen can be identified
- Using test kits that identify the pathogen using monoclonal antibodies
61
Physical defenses in plants
- Most plants, leaves and stems have a waxy cuticle which acts as a barrier to stop pathogens from entering
- Plant cells surround themselves in a cell wall made from cellulose which acts as a secondary barrier after the waxy cuticle
- Layers of dead cells surrounding the stems to act as a barrier e.g. bark
62
Chemical defenses in plants
- Some can produce antibacterial chemicals
- Others can produce toxins to deter herbivores
63
Mechanical defenses in plants
- Some plants have adapted to have thorns or hairs to prevent animals from touching or eating them
- Some plants have leaves that droop or curl when something touches them, this prevents insects from eating them by knocking them off
- Some plants mimic other organisms to deter animals and pests
