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Key Perspectives & Debates in Criminology > Drugs, Addiction and Crime > Flashcards

Drugs, Addiction and Crime Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the key readings?

A

Moyle et al (2019)
Goldstein (1985)

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2
Q

What are the key points from Goldstein?

A

There are three models of the drugs-violence relationship: psychopharmacological, economic-compulsive + systematic
The models are not mutually exclusive such as cocaine users

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3
Q

What is psychopharmacological violence?

A

Some individuals, as a result of short or long term ingestion of specific substances, may become excitable, irrational, and may exhibit violent behaviour.

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4
Q

Who looked at heroin as an example for psychopharmacological violence?

A

Lindesmith 1941

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5
Q

What did Lindesmith find?

A

Rather than increasing aggression its pharmacological properties, as with marijuana, it in fact ‘suppresses hostility and aggression

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6
Q

Who looked at the supporting evidence for psychopharmacological?

A

Parker & Auerhahn

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7
Q

What did Parker & Auerhahn find?

A

Alcohol has been widely studied for its role in lowering inhibitions and increasing aggression, as seen in Parker and Auerhahn’s (1998) review of alcohol-related violence

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8
Q

What is a critique of Parker & Auerhahn?

A

Not all drug users exhibit violent behaviour, suggesting that the individual’s predisposition and social context play a mediating role

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9
Q

What is economic-compulsive violence?

A

Driven by the need to fund drug habits, but nuanced factors such as poverty and social disadvantage also play a role

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10
Q

Who looked at the supporting evidence for economic-compulsive?

A

Johnson et al 2000

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11
Q

What did Johnson et al find?

A

Studies on heroin and crack cocaine users in urban environments confirm a correlation between economic need and property crimes involving violence

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12
Q

Who critiqued Johnson et al?

A

Maher & Daly (1996)

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13
Q

What did Maher & Daly find?

A

Research suggests that not all drug users resort to violence for economic reasons; alternative coping strategies (e.g., informal borrowing, sex work) are also common

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14
Q

Who objected to economic-compulsive violence?

A

Bennett & Holloway 2007
Moyle & Coomber 2015

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15
Q

What did Bennett and Holloway say?

A

Ignores the influence of poverty and social disadvantage

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16
Q

What did Moyle & Coomber say?

A

Make nuanced decisions about ways to fund ‘habit’ - ‘most heroin users avoid violent acquisitive crime if viable non-violent alternatives exist’

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17
Q

What is systemic violence?

A

Violence within drug markets, influenced by the market’s structure and participants

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18
Q

Who looked at the supporting evidence for systematic?

A

Jacobs 2000

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19
Q

What did Jacobs find?

A

Research on urban drug markets confirms a high prevalence of violence in contexts where law enforcement is absent or ineffective

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20
Q

Who critiqued Jacobs?

A

Coomber 2006

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21
Q

What did Coomber 2006 find?

A

Systemic violence may not be universal; some drug markets operate with minimal violence due to strong internal governance structures

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22
Q

What are the policy implications from Goldstein?

A

Harm reduction
Treatment over punishment
Community interventions

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23
Q

Who spoke about harm reduction?

A

Reuter 2009

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24
Q

What did Reuter 2009 say?

A

Advocated for policies that target the systemic drivers of violence, such as decriminalisation or regulation of drug markets

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25
Who spoke about treatment over punishment?
McBride et al 2001
26
What did McBride et al 2001 say?
Emphasised the need for expanding addiction treatment services to mitigate economic-compulsive violence
27
Who spoke about community interventions?
Curtuis & Wendel
28
What did Curtis & Wendel (2007) say?
Suggested community-based approaches to reduce violence in areas with high systemic conflicts
29
What are the key points from Moyle et al?
There are open and closed markets Open= public transactions, buyers and seller might not know each other Closed= operate on trust, markets are more discrete Drug dealing has risks: legal , economic (fraud and theft) and violence Women in drug markets have higher risks such as exploitation and violence (gender inequalities, Anderson 2005) Digital markets - risk of scams and technical issues
30
What are the policy implications from Moyle et al?
Harm reduction approach Digital = opportunities for public health interventions
31
Who spoke about legal risks?
Moyle et al
32
What did Moyle et al say?
Dealers implement risk mitigation strategies such as encrypted communication (e.g., Wickr, Telegram) and frequent relocation of dealing locations
33
Who spoke about violence and drugs?
Sandberg (2012)
34
What did Sandberg say?
Dealers avoid violence by maintaining informal codes of conduct and resolving disputes through compensation or product replacements
35
Who spoke about open markets?
May & Hough (2004)
36
What did May & Hough say?
Open markets carry high risk due to visability to law enforcement
37
Who spoke about cryptomarkets?
Aldridge & Décary-Hétu, 2016).
38
What did Aldridge & Décary-Hétu say?
Cryptomarkets blurred open and closed Hybrid system where anonymity is nigh and trust is built through mechanisms like reviews
39
Who looked at the traditional typologies?
Dorn et al
40
What are bulk wholesellers? (Dorn et al)
Drug market Criminal diversifers and sideliners Opium wars Air America
41
What are mid/low level wholesalers (Dorn et al)?
Non-users, sell to other sellers and users Often independent
42
What are street dealers? (Dorn et al)
Less well organised. Drift in and out of supply Runners, user-dealers, working on behalf of dealer
43
How does Stevens (2011) challenge traditional views of the drugs-crime link?
Stevens argues the relationship between drugs and crime is complex and bidirectional, influenced by socio-economic factors
44
Who looked at domestic drug distribution?
Black (2020)
45
What did Black find?
Pyramid= retailers, local wholesaler, national wholesaler and importer
46
What is a retailer?
Sells drugs to street level to users
47
What are the characteristics of the retailers?
Mix of junior members of OCGs and USGs as well as user dealers Commodities often dealt together High vol of transactions
48
What are local wholesalers?
Buys and sells drugs in bulk within one city/region
49
What are the characteristics of the local wholesalers?
Often several links in the supply chain in this stage Significant intelligence gaps on this stage of the market
50
What are national wholesalers?
Buys drugs from one city/regions and sells to another city/region
51
What are the characteristics of the national wholesalers?
Large no of OCGs and also urban street gangs Deal in range of different commodities
52
What are importers?
Arranges supply of drugs into the UK and sells to national wholesalers
53
What are the characteristics of the importers?
Small no of OCGs who tend to have international links Often deals in a single commodity More likely to use professionals
54
Why are drug markets described as diverse and shifting?
Drug markets are not homogenous but consist of various actors and structures that adapt to social, technological, and legal changes.
55
Who looked at the role of gender in drug markets?
Denton & O'Malley 1999
56
What is the role of gender in drug markets, according to Denton & O'Malley (1999)?
Gender shapes trust and business practices in drug markets, with unique roles and experiences for women in the illicit economy.
57
What are the advantages of app-mediated drug supply?
Immediacy and convenience
58
What is the role of social media apps in drug distribution?
Apps like Snapchat, Instagram, Wickr, Kik, and WhatsApp are used for: Ephemeral messaging Visual advertising of substances Convenience and immediacy in transactions
59
Give examples of the immediacy and convenience
Brokering drug deals without street dealers or complex cryptomarkets Variety of substances available Perceived security via ephemeral messaging (e.g., Snapchat, Wickr)- burn on read Visual evidence of drug quality- pictures to provide legitimacy
60
Who created the heterogenous drug market?
Coomer 2006
61
What is the heterogenous drug market?
Different individuals, with different backgrounds operating at different levels of the drug market will produce different levels of corresponding behaviours – can make violence more likely
62
What is the reality of drug markets?
Players can include (for example middle class dealers, women dealers, social suppliers, ethnic markets (Coomber 2015) Plus separate markets: Youth cannabis markets barely touch the drug market
63
How is addiction defined by the World Health Organisation (2007)
A multifactorial health disorder characterised by compulsion, loss of control, tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, strong desire to use, and dependence despite adverse consequences
64
What is the neurological approaches to addiction?
How changes in brain chemistry can contribute to addictive behaviours
65
What are the social approaches to addiction?
Addiction is not only a biological or psychological disorder but is also shaped by social definitions, stigma, and norms. What counts as “addiction” or problematic use may vary across cultures and historical periods.
66
What is the disease model?
Addiction is a chronic, relapsing brain disease characterised by compulsive drug-seeking and use despite harmful consequences
67
What are the implications of addiction models for treatment and criminal justice responses?
Each model (disease, social, neurobiological) influences approaches to treatment, policy, and legal frameworks, with some prioritising rehabilitation over punishment
68
What is the Rat Park experiment?
Demonstrated that social integration reduces addiction, suggesting addiction is linked to social isolation and dislocation.
69
Who looked at addiction as poverty of spirit?
Alexander 2009
70
What did Alexander say?
Scientific medicine has failed: cure/prevention/pain. No consensus on what it is – continues to increase! Individual phenomenon but patterns in societal prevalence Does not deny individual differences but argues that social determinants MORE important Reshape society through social integration and meaning – there then would not be a need to fill void
71
Who looked at heroin in addiction?
Lalander 2001
72
How does Lalander (2001) view heroin use in terms of addiction's function?
Heroin use provides a meaningful life structure with daily routines and goals, offering users a sense of purpose and community
73
How does Gabor Mate (2008) define addiction?
Addiction is any behaviour that provides pleasure or relief, causes negative consequences, and cannot be given up, often rooted in emotional pain or trauma
74
What is the "moral economy" of heroin use, according to Wakeman (2016)?
Heroin use fosters like-mindedness, peer support, and a sense of community among users, forming a unique subculture
75
What is the impact of sensationalist media coverage on public perceptions of drug markets?
Sensationalist headlines exaggerate violence and foster an "us vs them" narrative, distorting the complexity of drug markets and addiction
76
Who looked at communications?
Natarajan et al (1995)
77
What did Natarajan et al say?
New communications improve the safety of the drug trade

Key Perspectives & Debates in Criminology (19 decks)

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