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Plants & Fungi 3 > Early plant development > Flashcards

Early plant development Flashcards

(63 cards)

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1
Q

what terms describe strawberry

A

aggregate and accessory fruit, Also, there are some dry indehiscent achenes! (seeds)

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2
Q

What type of fruit are peppers?

A

BERRIES

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3
Q

Embryogenesis is the

A

establishment of the body
plan of the plant

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4
Q

two superimposed patterns of embryogenesis:

A

apical basal pattern and radial pattern

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5
Q

The embryo is the next generation of sporophyte
contained within the ___

A

previous generation of sporophyte

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6
Q

The first cell division of the zygote is
___ and determines ___

A

asymmetrical, polarity

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7
Q

Smaller apical cell will become
___, basal cell will become
___

A

embryo, suspensor

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8
Q

suspensor

A

anchors the
embryo in place and supports
it metabolically

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9
Q

The ___ form during
embryogenesis

A

3 primary meristems

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10
Q

At torpedo stage of eudicot, the ___ undergoes programmed cell death

A

suspensor

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10
Q

Contents of mature embryos:

A

Two cotyledons, or one cotyledon (monocots)
* Shoot apical meristem and root apical meristem at opposite ends
* Stem-like axis below the cotyledons called the hypocotyl
* Embryonic root called the radicle
* If radicle is not distinguished, referred to as hypocotyl-root axis

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11
Q

mature embryo Surrounded by

A

seed coat derived from integuments of the ovule –
thin but impermeable to water

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12
Q

mature embryo scar from

A

Scar from attachment to the placenta/ovary wall - hilum

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13
Q

eudicot vs monocot seed

A
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14
Q

After embryogenesis, the seed enters
___ phase

A

maturation

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15
Q

During embryogenesis, there was a lot of nutrient transfer from the
___ plant to the ___

A

maternal plant to the developing embryo

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16
Q

During seed maturation phase, there is a massive buildup of food reserves (___) in the ___ of the developing seed

A

starch, storage proteins, oils, endosperm or cotyledons

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17
Q

maturation stage; Seed undergoes ___ as it loses 90% (or more) water content

A

dessication

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18
Q

maturation stage: seed coat

A

hardens

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19
Q

during maturation stage: Metabolism levels are almost ___, allowing the embryo to
remain ___ for long periods of time

A

imperceptible, viable

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20
Q

during maturation stage: Seeds may become

A

quiescent or dormant

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21
Q

___resumes the growth of the embryo

A

germination

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22
Q

What are some of the external factors of germination?

A

Temperature, water, light, and oxygen

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23
Q

Some dormant seeds require additional changes to
occur before germination can occur; often requiring
certain

A

temperatures or light – after-ripening –
ensures seeds won’t germinate at the wrong time!

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24
Abscisic Acid (ABA)
produced in early seed development, and high levels of ABA maintain dormancy; after-ripening decreases levels of ABA to release dormancy
25
Gibberellic acid (GA)
breaks seed dormancy to allow for seed germination
26
in many grasses, gibberellic acid (GA) produced by the embryo stimulates ___ which allow for seed germination
hydrolytic enzymes
27
Other ways seed dormancy is released
After passage through an animal digestive tract * Desert seeds have germination inhibiting molecules that must be leached away by rainfall * Some must be cracked mechanically, like in the rushing water of a rocky stream * Fire opens up cones or fruits of fire-adapted species * Shade intolerant species will only germinate after a canopy tree falls
28
When germination occurs, the first structure to emerge from most seeds is the ___
root
29
why does root grow first
Water Absorption: The root is responsible for absorbing water from the soil, which is essential for activating the seed’s metabolism and continuing the growth process. Anchorage: The emerging root anchors the seedling in the soil, providing stability as other structures like the shoot and leaves develop. Nutrient Uptake: Roots start absorbing minerals and nutrients from the soil, which are crucial for the development of the shoot and the production of energy via photosynthesis later on. Direction of Growth: The root grows downward due to gravitropism (growth in response to gravity), helping the seedling orient itself properly — root downward, shoot upward.
30
Germination in common eudicots - the ___ are the source of energy for the young seeding until it is established
cotyledons
31
eudicot roots
lateral and taproot
32
Germination in common monocots - the ___ is the source of energy for the young seeding until it is established
endosperm
33
monocot roots, fibrous roots
34
in shoots, IAA
IAA accumulates on the shaded side and stimulates cell elongation toward the sun
35
Plants exhibit both negative and positive gravitropism – perception is due to amyloplasts called ___
statoliths
36
More IAA is distributed to the LOWER side of the root, which
INHIBITS elongation in roots
37
IAA also regulates apical dominance
38
The polar transport of IAA guides vascular tissue formation
39
___ are established early in embryogenesis and maintained throughout a plant’s lifespan and throughout the entire sporophyte, as growth proceeds
Patterns of polar auxin transport
40
Humans have altered the genetic make up of plant population through ___, dramatic results over long periods of time
selective breeding
41
___ has been used since the 1920’s to generate new traits – led to >3200 varieties of common plant products
Mutagenesis breeding
42
Using biotechnology, i.e.___, humans can alter a population more quickly, introduce new trait
genetic engineering
43
What is a GMO?
Genetically modified organisms, aka transgenic organisms are organisms that have had their genomes modified by the addition of one (or multiple) genes from other organisms (transgenes)
44
Nature’s genetic engineering?
Sweet potatoes have been shown to contain bacterial genes * Evolutionary studies suggest this horizontal gene transfer occurred ~8000 years ago http://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2015/05/05/404198552/natural-gmo-sweet-potato-genetically-modified-8-000-years-ag
45
___ is nature’s way of making transgenic plants
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
46
how does agrobacterium tumefaciens work
it has a natural ability to transfer its own DNA into a plant's genome, effectively genetically modifying the plant — a process scientists have adapted for genetic engineering. Here's how it works naturally: Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a soil bacterium. It infects wounded plant tissue and causes crown gall disease (tumor-like growths). The bacterium carries a Ti plasmid (Tumor-inducing plasmid), which contains a segment called T-DNA. During infection, the bacterium transfers the T-DNA into the plant cell, and it gets integrated into the plant’s genome.
47
Agrobacterium uses the ___ to transform plant cells Expression of these genes essentially forms a ___ that is dense with cells and nutrients to feed the bacteria!
Ti plasmid, tumor
48
Recombinant Ti plasmids are used to make transgenic plants
Using DNA technology, can put whatever gene you want into the Ti plasmid * Grow the modified Ti plasmid in Agrobacterium * Infect plants with Agrobacterium * Select for plants that have been modified
49
Due to genetic engineering, over 75% of soybeans and cotton in US are resistant to ___
glyphosate
50
Glyphosate inhibits the ___ which is used in the production of aromatic amino acids
chloroplast enzyme EPSP synthase
51
These transgenic crops express a bacterial form of EPSP synthase which is ___
glyphosate resistant
52
How to make a transgenic plant
Ti plasmid is naturally found in some A. tumefaciens, causes crown gall disease in many plants Portion of the Ti plasmid integrates into host chromosome, induces tumor Transgenic plants are made when the Ti plasmid is modified to remove the ‘tumor- causing’ genes, and include the transgene you want to add to the plant
53
Bacillus thuringiensis - Bt crops
B. thuringiensis produces a protein that crystalizes in the gut of insects and their larvae Introduction of cry gene into crops (corn, cotton, tomatoes, tobacco) – less crop damage = big success
54
Nutritional Enhancement: Golden Rice
Vitamin A deficiency a problem in some areas of Asia and Africa, results in blindness Golden rice expresses three enzymes needed for B- carotene production Enhanced levels of B- carotene, precursor to vitamin A
55
There are 10 GMO plants on the market in the US
56
two gmo meats
aquadvantage salmon, calqafe pork
57
What is the difference between a GMO/transgenic plant and a gene edited plant?
Historically, transgenic plants were created by random integration of the Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium into the plant genome - regulated by the FDA, USDA, and EPA * Gene edited plants use the CRISPR/Cas9 system to make a targeted change to the genome
58
CRISPR/Cas9 as a genome editor
Make a guide RNA that will target Cas9 to sequence of interest * Generate double stranded breaks at targeted parts of the genome, bring in DNA repair enzymes and donor DNA to ‘fix’ and remove bad sequence
59
gene edited crops are not currently regulated in the US
Gene edited crops on the market include soybean, canola, rice, maize, mushroom and camelina
60
Does it make sense to use genetically engineered plants?
* Designed to increase yield by making plants: * Resistant to insect damage * Tolerant to herbicides * Resistant to plant viruses make more plants
61
And it isn’t just about increasing yield...
GMO soybean that makes a healthier soybean oil * GMO apple that doesn’t brown and reduces food waste * GMO eggplant (Bangladesh) that uses less pesticides and earns more money for the farmer * GMO cassava that is virus resistant
62
Why is there fear of GMOs? What have you heard?
There is some concern that the modified organisms can breed with natural populations and spread the ‘transgene’ – herbicide resistant ‘superweeds’ * Corporate greed $$$ * Could cause environmental and biodiversity effects * Bottom line – the current GMOs in our food have been well studied and do not have any negative side effects on human or animal health

Plants & Fungi 3 (12 decks)

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