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DAT > Ecology and Behaviour > Flashcards

Ecology and Behaviour Flashcards

1
Q

the changes in allele frequency that occur over time within a population due to mutation, selection, gene flow, gene drift, and nonrandom mating

A

microevolution

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2
Q

the patterns of changes in groups of related species over broad periods of geologic time; patterns determine phylogeny

A

macroevolution

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3
Q

What was Lamarck’s theory?

A

Use and Disuse
-body parts can develop with increased usage and unused parts are weakened

-inheritance of acquired characteristics: body features acquired during lifetime can be passed to offspring

-natural transformation of species: organisms produce offspring with changes, transforming each later generation to be slightly more complex

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4
Q

What is Darwin’s theory?

A

Natural selection

  • survival of the fittest, allele frequencies increase or decrease in order to adapt to the environment
  • descent with modification: over time, traits with reproductive advantage will become more common
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5
Q

the development of an organism

A

ontogeny

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6
Q

the evolutionary development and diversification of a species

A

phylogeny

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7
Q

What is the evidence for evolution?

A
  • Fossils
  • Biogeography
  • Embryology
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8
Q

body parts that resemble one another between different species that descended from a common ancestor (bat wings vs. bird wings)

A

homologous structures

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9
Q

body parts that resemble one another between different species that evolved independently (bat/bird wings vs. bee wings)

A

analogous structures

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10
Q

ability to survive and produce fertile offspring

A

fitness

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11
Q

What is stabilizing selection?

A

bell curve favours an intermediate, like how the average height in humans is in the middle

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12
Q

a group of individuals capable of interbreeding

A

species

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13
Q

What is industrial selection?

A

the selection of dark coloured, melanic, varieties in various species of moths as a result of industrial pollution (type of directional selection)

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14
Q

What is disruptive selection?

A

when the environment favours extreme or unusual traits while selecting against common traits

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15
Q

differential mating of males or females in a population

A

sexual selection

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16
Q

females choose superior males, which increases fitness of the offspring

A

INTERsexual selection

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17
Q

males compete and fight with other males for better mating opportunities

A

INTRAsexual selection

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18
Q

the differences in appearance of males and females

A

sexual dimorphism

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19
Q

this is a form of directional selection carried out by humans when they breed favourable traits, and is not natural selection

A

artificial selection

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20
Q

mating with unrelated partners resulting in mixing of different alleles and creating new allele combinations

A

outbreeding

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21
Q

the coexistence of two or more phenotypes

A

polymorphism

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22
Q

What is heterozygote advantage?

A

heterozygote condition has greater advantage than either homozygous conditions

Ex. sickle cell anemia is recessive, heterozygous trait is resistant against malaria

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23
Q

What is punctuated equilibrium?

A

the hypothesis that evolutionary development is marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change.

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24
Q

What is frequency-dependent selection (minority advantage)?

A

occurs when least common phenotype has selective advantage

Ex. predators use search images of common phenotypes to find prey, allowing prey with rare phenotypes to escape. The rare prey phenotype eventually becomes common and cycle repeats

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25
Q

variations that are passed down without any selective value, such as fingerprints in humans

A

neutral variation

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26
Q

variation of a species dependent on climate or geographic conditions

A

geographic variation

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27
Q

the increase and decrease of allele frequencies due to adaptations to the environment

A

natural selection

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28
Q

the introduction and removal of alleles from the population when individuals leave (emigration) or enter (immigration) the population

A

gene flow

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29
Q

the random increase and decrease of an allele by change, has a larger effect on small populations

A

genetic drift

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30
Q

What is the composition of the modern atmosphere?

A
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31
Q

occurs when the population undergoes a dramatic decrease in size due to natural catastrophes or events, gene pool is much smaller and population vulnerable to genetic drift

A

bottleneck effect

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32
Q

What are the two types of nonrandom mating?

A

1) inbreeding - individuals mate with relatives, changes genotype but not allele frequency

  1. sexual selection - females choose males based on superior traits
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33
Q

a small population of the same species that regularly interbreed; beavers along a river

A

deme

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34
Q

What are the equations for hardy weinberg?

A
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35
Q

Example of a Hardy-Weinberg problem:
A plant population has 84% red flowers and
16% white flowers. The red allele (R) is
dominant and the white allele (r) is recessive. Write out the % of dominant and recessive alleles and the frequency of homozygous dominant, heterozygous and homozygous recessive.

A
  1. 16% white flowers can be written as: q2
    = 0.16. Taking the square root to find q
    will equal 0.4
  2. 0.4 can then be plugged into “p + q =
    1” to get “p + 0.4 = 1.” Solving for p
    equals 0.6
  3. Plugging 0.6 into p2 results in 0.36
  4. Plugging 0.6 into 2pq results in 0.48
    p = 0.6 (60% of the alleles are R)

*See picture for rest

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36
Q

a relationship between two species

A

symbiosis

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37
Q

when the population is divided by a geographic barrier

A

allopatric speciation

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38
Q

the formation of a new species without the presence of geographic barriers

A

sympatric speciation

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39
Q

possessing more than two sets of chromosomes

A

polyploidy

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40
Q

possessing more than two sets of chromosomes, both of which are from the same parental species

A

autopolyploidy

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41
Q

possessing more than two sets of chromosomes, but they come from different species

A

allopolyploidy

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42
Q

two different closely related species mate and produce a hybrid along a geographic boundary called a hybrid zone

A

hybridization

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43
Q

the rapid evolution of many species from a single ancestor

A

adaptive radiation

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44
Q

What is prezygotic isolation?

A

prevents fertilization before mating is attempted, zygote not formed

  1. Habitat isolation - species do not encounter eachother because they live in different habitats, even if they are in the same geographical area
  2. Temporal isolation - species reproduce at different seasons/times
  3. Behavioural isolation - some species will not reproduce with eachother if they do not perform the correct courtship rituals
  4. Mechanical isolation - occurs when male and female genetalia are not compatible
  5. Gametic isolation - male and female gametes do not recognize eachother
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45
Q

What is postzygotic isolation?

A

if a zygote dose form, there are methods to maintain isolation

  1. hybrid inviability - zygote fails to develop properly and dies before reaching reproductive maturity
  2. hybrid sterility - hybrids become functional adults but cannot reproduce
  3. hybrid breakdown - hybrids produce offspring that have reduced viability/fertility, hybrid’s children cannot reproduce
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46
Q

this type of evolution occurs when two or more species that originated from a common ancestor become increasingly different over time as a result of speciation

A

divergent evolution

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47
Q

this type of evolution occurs when two unrelated species evolve to share more similar traits due to adapting to a similar environment (analogous traits)

A

convergent evolution

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48
Q

this type of evolution occurs when two related species make similar evolutionary changes after their divergence from a common ancestor

A

parallel evolution

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49
Q

this type of evolution occurs when two related species make similar evolutionary changes after their divergence from a common ancestor

A

parallel evolution

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50
Q

this evolution occurs when two species each causes the other one to evolve, which results in the evolution of both species

A

coevolution

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51
Q

evolution occurs by gradual accumulation of small changes

A

phyletic gradualism

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52
Q

relationship is beneficial to both species

A

mutualistic

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53
Q

What was the atmosphere like in the early Earth?

A

CH4, NH3, CO, CO2, H2, N2, H2O, S, HCl, HCN

little to no oxygen

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54
Q

What did Oparin & Haldene do?

A
  • proposed organic soup theory
  • said if o2 was in primordial atmosphere, no organic molecules would form because oxygen is reactive
  • environment must be reducing because if it was oxidizing then complex molecules would have broken apart
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55
Q

What did Oparin & Haldene do?

A
  • proposed organic soup theory
  • said if o2 was in primordial atmosphere, no organic molecules would form because oxygen is reactive
  • environment must be reducing because if it was oxidizing then complex molecules would have broken apart
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56
Q

What did Stanley Miller do?

A
  • tested Oparin’s theory and produced organic molecules
  • sealed ammonia, methane, water, and hydrogen in a flask and simulated lightening
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57
Q

relationship is beneficial to one species and neutral to the other species

A

commensalism

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58
Q

structures that appear useless but had ancestral function; appendix is an example

A

vestigal structures

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59
Q

two or more harmful species that are not closely related but share one or more common predators, have come to mimic each other’s warning signals

A

Mullerian mimicry

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60
Q

harmless species has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a harmful species directed at a common predator

A

batesian mimicry

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61
Q

all the alleles for any given trait in the population

A

gene pool

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62
Q

speciation pattern in which populations speciate while in contact along a common border

A

Parapatric speciation

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63
Q

occurs when peripheral populations become geographically isolated from the main population and undergo genetic divergence and speciation

A

Peripatric speciation

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64
Q

the gradual evolution of a species without any branching, a straight path of evolution

A

anagenesis/ phyletic evolution

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65
Q

a group of species that includes a common ancestor and all of its descendants

A
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66
Q

a particular stage of an ecosystem

A

sere

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67
Q

an organic matter that leaves an impression in rocks or in inorganic matter

A

mold

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68
Q

a type of fossil formed when a mold is filled in

A

cast

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69
Q

relationship is beneficial to one species but detrimental to the other species

A

parasitism

70
Q

Give examples of autotrophic anaerobes

A

chemosynthetic bacteria

71
Q

Give examples of autotrophic aerobes

A

green plants and photoplankton

72
Q

Give examples of heterotrophic anaerobes

A

yeast

73
Q

Give examples of heterotrophic aerobes

A

amoebas, earthworms, humans

74
Q

shared traits derived from an evolutionary ancestor common to all members of a group

A

synapomorphies

75
Q

What is the law of parsimony?

A

Occam’s Razor

The fewest number of changes with respect to synapomorphies is likely the correct representation of reality

76
Q

What is a simple reflex?

A

rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus

“knee jerk”

77
Q

What are complex reflexes?

A

startle response

78
Q

These behaviours are innate, or inherited. An example would be in mammals who care for their offspring by female parents

A

instinct

79
Q

What is a fixed action pattern?

A
80
Q

What are the three types of phyletic groups

A
81
Q

What is imprinting?

A

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Ex. goslings accepting any large moving object as their mother

82
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Classical conditioning - the most well-
known example of classical conditioning
are Pavlov’s dogs. Dogs naturally
salivate when presented with food. This
salivation caused by food is called the
unconditioned response which is an
innate reflex, and the food stimulus is
the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov then
rings a bell when food is presented, and
after some time, the dogs associated
the bell sound with the food stimulus.
However, ringing a bell with no food
during the beginning of the experiment
will not cause any response in the dog
because the bell sound was still a
neutral stimulus. At the end though, the
dogs ended up salivating just at the
sound of the bell without needing the
food/unconditioned stimulus. Thus, the
bell sound became the conditioned
stimulus that will elicit a response even
in the absence of the unconditioned
stimulus. The salivation caused by the
conditioned stimulus is called the
conditioned response/reflex.

83
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Positive punishment - adding
something bad to decrease a
behavior (e.g. hitting an animal
when it bites someone)
ii. Negative punishment - taking away
something good to decrease a
behavior (e.g. not giving treats to an
animal when it does not follow
orders)
iii. Positive reinforcement - adding
something good to increase a
behavior (e.g. giving treats to a dog
when it follows orders)
iv. Negative reinforcement - takign away something bad to increase a behaviour (e.g., taking off electric shock collar of dog when it follows orders)

84
Q

learned behaviour can be reversed in the absence of reinforcement

A

extinction

85
Q

the recovery of a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus after a previously extinguished response is called

A

spontaneous recovery

86
Q

What is spatial learning?

A
87
Q

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

A

habituation

88
Q

What is insight?

A
89
Q

When an organism responds to stimuli similar to the original stimulus but not identical to the original conditioned stimulus

A

stimulus generalization

90
Q

an undirected change in speed of an animal’s movement in response to a stimulus (ex. animals scurrying when a rock is lifted) (RANDOM)

A

kinesis

91
Q

an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus

A

sensitization

92
Q

a directed movement in response to a stimulus, either toward or away from a stimulus (DIRECTIONAL)

A

taxis

93
Q

long-distance seasonal movement of animals

A

migration

94
Q

How do animals communicate?

A
  1. Chemical - phermones
  2. Visual - aggression (animal showing teeth) or courtship (peacock displaying feathers)
  3. Auditory - sounds
  4. Tactile - touch - bonding, infant care, grooming, mating
95
Q

This is the ability of the learning organism to differentially respond to slightly different stimuli; animal responds to sounds in 990 to 1010 hz range

A

stimulus discrimination

96
Q

What is pecking order?

A

Social hierarchy or dominance of birds

97
Q

What is agnostic behaviour?

A
98
Q

the active possession and defence of territory to ensure adequate food and place to mate

A

territoriality

99
Q

unselfish behaviour that reduces the fitness of an individual (ex. animal risks its safety in denfese of another)

A

altruistic behaviour

100
Q

What is kin selection?

A

the process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives

(Ex. squirrel sounds alarm when predator comes, detrimental to him but saves family members)

101
Q

What is reciprocal altruism?

A

unrelated members of same species help eachother

102
Q

What is Hamilton’s rule?

A

rB>C

103
Q

Appeasement behaviour

A
104
Q

one male mating with one female

A

monogamy

105
Q

one male mating with multiple females or one female mating with multiple males

A

polygamy

106
Q

What is game theory?

A
107
Q

reproduction in which an organism produces all of its offspring in a single event, survival rate of offspring is low but there are higher number offspring

A

semelparity (big-bang reproduction)

108
Q

produce offspring repeatedly

A

iteroparity (repeated reproduction)

109
Q

this is the zone in water where light penetrates and photosynthesis occurs

A

photic zone

110
Q

this is the zone in water where almost no light penetration exists, only animals and heterotrophs

A

aphotic zone

111
Q

non-living factors such as temperature, climate, light, water availability and topography

A

abiotic

112
Q

living things

A

biotic

113
Q

a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area

A

population

114
Q

a group of populations living in the same area

A

community

115
Q

interrelationships between organisms in a community and their physical environment

A

ecosystem

116
Q

combination of all the ecosystems on earth; atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and geosphere

A

biosphere

117
Q

place where an organism lives, all other organisms present, and their physical and chemical environments

A

habitat

118
Q

all the biotic and abiotic resources in the environment used by an organism

A

niche

119
Q

N, or total number of individuals in a population

A

size

120
Q

the total number of individuals per area or volume occupied

A

density

121
Q

describes how individuals in a population are distributed

A

dispersion

122
Q

Describe the survivorship curve

A

Type I
- survive to middle age but mortality increases in old age
- humans

Type II
- probability of survival is constant and independent of age
- birds, hydra

Type III
- most individuals die young, with few surviving to reproduce and beyond
- trees, oysters

123
Q

the maximum number of individuals of a population that can be sustained by a habitat

A

carrying capacity

124
Q

The maximum rate at which a population could increase under ideal conditions

A

Biotic potential

125
Q

elements that prevent a population from reaching full biotic potential

A

limiting factors

126
Q

the description of the abundance of individuals of each age

A

age structure

127
Q

the description of the abundance of individuals of each age

A

age structure

128
Q

What is a K-selected species?

A
  • low reproductive rates
  • longer maturation times
  • size is constant
  • strong parental care
  • usually type I survivor curves

Ex. humans

129
Q

What is an r-selected species?

A
  • high reproductive rates
  • shorter maturation times
  • weak parental care
  • usually type III survivor curve

Ex. insects that invade a habitat and reproduce

130
Q

Describe the bacterial growth phases

A

Lag - adapting to growth conditions

Exponential - exponential growth, doubles with every time period

Stationary - growth rate = death rate

Death - bacteria die

131
Q

Shannon diversity index

A

measures the diversity in a community

higher value = more diverse

132
Q

What is the competitive exclusion principle (Gause’s principle)?

A

two or more species compete for same resources (or occupy same niche), one is more likely to be successful

133
Q

two species occupy same niche but pursue different resources, minimizing competition

A

resource partitionning

134
Q

kills and eats another animal

A

true predator

135
Q
A

parasite

136
Q

an insect that lays its eggs on a host, after eggs hatch the larvae consumes hosts tissues

A

parasitoid

137
Q

an animal that eats plants

A

herbivore

138
Q

animals that eat grasses

A

grazers

139
Q

What are the conditions which make habitat favourable?

A
  1. Substrate texture
  2. Soil pH
  3. Soil water potential
  4. Light availability
  5. Crowding
  6. Pioneer species (r-selected, lichens and mosses)
140
Q

What is primary succession?

A

occurs on substrates that have never previously supported living things, such as volcanic islands, lava flows, or rock left behind by retreating glaciers

141
Q

What is secondary succession?

A

occurs in habitats where communities were entirely or partially destroyed by damaging events, such as fire, flood, insect devastation, overgrazing, forest clearing, construction, etc

142
Q

Describe the hydrologic cycle

A

Hydrologic cycle (water cycle) - The
reservoir are the oceans, air (water
vapor), groundwater, and glaciers.
Evaporation, wind, and precipitation
moves water from the ocean to land.
Assimilation is done by plants absorbing
water from the soil, and by animals
drinking and eating other organisms
(which are mostly water). Release is
done when plants transpire and when
animals and plants decompose

143
Q

animals that eat leaves

A

browsers

144
Q

Describe the carbon cycle

A

Carbon cycle - carbon is required for
building organic materials. It is the basis
for photosynthesis and respiration. The
reservoirs are atmospheric CO2, fossil
fuels (coal, oil), peat, and durable
organic matter (e.g. cellulose).
Assimilation is done by plants when they
use CO2 in photosynthesis, and by
animals when they consume plants (this
is carbon fixing because the carbon is
reduced from its inorganic form of CO2
to organic compounds). Release of CO2
occurs through respiration,
decomposition, and when organic
material is burned

145
Q

Describe the nitrogen cycle

A

Nitrogen cycle - nitrogen is required for
the manufacture of amino acids and
nucleic acids. The reservoirs are
atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and soil
(NH4+, NH3, NO2, NO3). Assimilation
occurs when plants absorb nitrogen as
either NO3-
or NH4+ and when animals
obtain nitrogen by eating plants/
animals.
i. Nitrogen fixation - this is when
atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is
converted into organic nitrogen
(NH4+) through nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in the soil. Nitrogen can
also be fixed by lightning and be
converted into nitrogen oxides
(NOx)
ii. Nitrification - this is when
ammonium (NH4+) is converted to
nitrite (NO2-
) followed by the
conversion of nitrite to nitrate (NO3-
)
by nitrifying bacteria
Release of nitrogen is done by
denitrifying bacteria, which convert
nitrate into atmospheric nitrogen.
Detritivorous bacteria also release
nitrogen by converting organic
compounds back to ammonium
(ammonification). Animals release
nitrogen by excreting ammonium, urea,
or uric acid, and through decay since
nitrogen in the form of ammonia (NH3)
is released from dead tissues

146
Q

Describe the phosphorous cycle

A

Phosphorus cycle - phosphorus is
required for manufacturing ATP and all
nucleic acids. Cycles for other minerals
such as calcium and magnesium are
similar to the phosphorous cycle. The
reservoirs for phosphorous are rocks
and ocean sediments because erosion
transfers phosphorous to the water and
soil. Assimilation occurs when plants
absorb inorganic phosphate (PO43-)
from the soil and when animals obtain
organic phosphorus when they eat.
Release of phosphorous occurs when
plants and animals decompose, and
when animals excrete phosphorous in
waste products

147
Q

Describe the energy pyramid

A

Primary producers
- autotrophs
- plants, photosynthetic protists, cyanobacteria, chemosynthetic bacteria

Primary consumers
- herbivores (eat primary producers)

Secondary consumers
- primary carnivore (eat primary consumer)

Tertiary consumer
- secondary carnivore, eat secondary consumer

148
Q

Tropical Rain Forest

A
  • high, stable temperature and humidity
  • heavy rainfall
  • tall trees
  • little light enters
  • epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants; vines)
    MOST DIVERSE BIOME
149
Q

Savanna

A
  • tropical grassland
  • scattered trees
  • high temperatures
  • little rainfall
  • ungulates, large hooved animals like giraffes and zebras
  • Austrailia, Africa
150
Q

Temperate Grasslands

A
  • less water with uneven seasonal rainfall
  • lower temperature then savannah (north american praire)
    MOST FERTILE SOIL
  • grazing mammals
151
Q

Temperate deciduous forests

A
  • warm summers, cold winters
  • moderate precipitation
  • many animals and plants depending on which part of the forest
  • deciduous trees shed leaves
152
Q

Temperate coniferous

A
  • cold and dry
  • vegetation adapted to conserve water (needle leeves)
  • warmer than taiga
153
Q

Desert

A
  • hot and dry
  • most extreme temperature fluctuations
  • rare rain
  • water conservation (cacti)
154
Q

Taiga

A
  • coniferous forest
  • spruce, fir, pine
  • long, cold winters
  • low precipitation in form of heavy snow
    LARGEST TERRESTRIAL BIOME
155
Q

Tundra

A
  • cold winters, ground freezes
  • minimal vegetation such as moss, lichen, shrubs, grasses
  • no trees
  • deeper soil is permafrost
  • little rain
156
Q

Chaparral

A
  • along California coastline
  • wet winter, dry summer
  • scattered vegetation
  • fires happen here
157
Q

Polar

A
  • frozen with no vegetation or terrestrial animals
158
Q

ponds, lakes, streams, rivers

A

fresh water

159
Q

largest biome covering 3/4 of earth surface

A

marine biome

160
Q

Describe the parts of the marine biome

A

Benthic zone - this is the lowest
layer of a body of water, including
the sediment surface and sub-
surface layers. In deep ocean water,light does not penetrate. Most
organisms here are scavengers
and detritivores.
ii. Pelagic zone - the water that is
neither close to shore nor close to
the very bottom. This zone is
broken down from top to bottom
in layers:
(i) Epiplagic - this is the surface
layer of water and the only
photic zone since there is
enough light for penetration.
Nearly all primary production
of the ocean occurs here
(ii) Mesoplagic - an aphotic zone,
so there is not enough light
for photosynthesis. There is
minimal oxygen here
(iii) Bathypelagic - aphotic zone
and pitch black. There is no
plant life, and most organisms
here consume detritus that
comes down from above
(iv) Abyssopelagic - also an
aphotic zone. It is cold, high
pressure, and most species
have no eyes due to the lack
of light
(v) Hadopelagic - most life here
exists in hydrothermal vents.
This zone is aphotic as well

161
Q

overgrazing of grasslands turns grasslands into deserts

A

desertification

162
Q

destruction of forests

A

deforestation

163
Q

burning of fossil fuels releases SO2 and NO2 into the air and when they react with water vapour, sulfuric acid and nitric acid are created and rains back on earth

A

acid rain

164
Q

endangered species

A

in danger of extinction

165
Q

threatened species

A

will become endangered soon

166
Q

small area with a large number of endangered and threatened species

A

biological hotspot

167
Q

bioremediation

A

using organisms to detoxify polluted ecosystem

168
Q

biological augmentation

A

using organisms to add essential materials to a degraded ecosystem

169
Q

biological augmentation

A

using organisms to add essential materials to a degraded ecosystem

170
Q

What is a rainshadow?

A

a region having little rainfall because it is sheltered from prevailing rain-bearing winds by a range of hills.

DAT (6 decks)

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