Elizabeth: all rest Flashcards
(118 cards)
1
Q
Describe society in England in 1558
A
In 1558, England had been governed by Tudor monarchs for more than seventy years. The country had well-organised systems of central government, but there were some major divisions in society
2
Q
How long had the Tudor family been ruling when Elizabeth became Queen in 1558?
A
since Henry VII became king in 1485 (so 73 years)
3
Q
How did government work in Elizabethan times?
A
- Elizabeth was the most powerful figure in Elizabethan England. Everyone was expected to be loyal to the Queen and obey her
- The privy council was a group of around twenty of the Queen’s most trusted counsellors. They advised her on all aspects of government and ensured that her wishes were carried out. They were expected to obey her orders even if they disagreed with her
- parliament was made up of members of the nobility and the gentry. The Queen needed Parliament’s consent to pass new laws or raise taxes. Parliament only met when the Queen summoned it, and Elizabeth tried to avoid using it - she only called Parliament 13 times during her 44-year reign
- The Queen relied on members of the nobility and gentry to enforce law and order throughout the country. Local government posts like Justice of the Peace and sheriff were unpaid, but many men volunteered in order to increase their local power and influence. Justices of the Peace were particularly important - they enforced the law, provided for the poor and ensured roads and bridges were maintained
4
Q
how did Elizabeth ensure the support of the nobility and gentry?
A
Elizabeth used patronage to ensure the support of the nobility and gentry. This often involved handing out titles and offices that gave the holder a source of income. Elizabeth distributed patronage widely to ensure that no-one felt left out. This helped to ensure political stability.
5
Q
what was society like at the start of Elizabeth’s reign?
A
- England’s population had been rising steadily since around 1500. Most people lived and worked in rural areas, but towns and cities were growing rapidly. London was by far the largest and most important city.
- The economy was dominated by agriculture, but farming practices were changing. The export of woollen cloth to Europe was very important to the economy, but merchants were also starting to explore trade with the Americas and Asia
- Elizabethan society was dominated by a small, land-owning aristocracy of nobility and gentry. There was also a growing number of wealthy men who earned their living as lawyers or merchants
- there was great inequality, and the divide between rich and poor was growing. Poverty became a major problem in Elizabethan England
6
Q
who were the gentry?
A
the gentry were a part of the social elite in Elizabethan England, below the level of the nobility. Members of the gentry were people who owned land and lived off the income it provided. They didn’t have to do other work to survive
7
Q
what was Elizabeth I’s upbringing like?
A
- Elizabeth was Henry VIII’s second child, the daughter of his second wife, Anne Boleyn. As a child, she was third in line to the throne (behind Edward VI and Mary I), so no-one really expected her to become queen
- Elizabeth had a difficult upbringing and sometimes feared for her life. In 1554, she was accused of conspiring against her half-sister, Queen Mary I, and was placed under house arrest for almost a year
- Elizabeth was very cautious and only trusted a few close advisers. She could also be indecisive - she was reluctant to make decisions without carefully considering the possible consequences
- she was intelligent, confident, and very well-educated. Despite having had little training in how to govern, she became a powerful and effective leader
8
Q
Why were there religious divisions in 1558?
A
the protestant reformation created religious divisions - the protestant reformation began in Germany in the early 16th century and gradually spread across Europe.
9
Q
Which Catholic beliefs and practices did protestants challenge?
A
Reformers challenged many Catholic beliefs and practices:
- the protestant reformers believed Christians were saved by faith, not by good deeds
- they questioned the authority of the pope
- they translated the bible from Latin into languages that ordinary people could understand
- they thought churches should be plain and simple, unlike highly decorated Catholic churches
10
Q
which religious changes had been made between 1530 and 1558?
A
- Henry VIII broke away from the Roman Catholic Church
- until the 1530s, England was a Catholic country, and most people were Catholics
- in the early 1530s, Henry VIII divorced his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. The Pope refused to accept the divorce, and so Henry broke away from the Roman Catholic Church. He rejected the Pope’s authority and made himself head of the Church of England
- Henry did not support the Protestant Reformation. He didn’t try to reform the English Church and make it Protestant, so Catholic beliefs and practices remained largely unchanged - Edward VI tried to make England more Protestant
- Edward VI was a strong supporter of Protestantism and tried to reform the English Church
- he made churches and church services simpler. Statues and decorations were removed from churches and priests weren’t allowed to wear their elaborate Catholic vestments. A new, Protestant prayer book was issued, and church services were held in English, not Latin - Mary I restored Catholicism and persecuted protestants
- Queen Mary I was a devout Catholic. She restored the Pope as head of the English Church, removed Edward’s Protestant reforms and brought back Catholic beliefs and practices.
- Under Mary, Protestants were harshly persecuted. More than 280 people were executed for their beliefs, and hundreds more (known as Marian exiles) fled to Protestant countries in Europe
11
Q
What did Elizabeth I want in terms of religion?
A
Elizabeth I wanted religious stability:
- Elizabeth I had been raised as a Protestant. Although she hid her beliefs during Mary’s reign to avoid being imprisoned, she was deeply religious and committed to Protestantism
- Elizabeth had seen the turmoil caused by Edward VI’s extreme protestant reforms and the violence of Mary I’s Catholic restoration. She wanted to end the constant religious changes of the last 30 years be creating a stable and lasting religious settlement
12
Q
when was the religious settlement?
A
1559
13
Q
what did the Act of Supremacy do?
A
give Elizabeth control over the Church:
- Henry VIII and Edward VI has used the title Supreme head of the Church of England. In her Act of Supremacy (passed in 1559), Elizabeth altered this title to make herself the Supreme Governor of the English Church
- The Act of Supremacy required churchmen and people holding public office to swear the Oath of Supremacy. They had to recognise the Queen as Supreme Governor and promise to be loyal to her
- Most parish priests took the Oath. However, all but one of the Catholic bishops refused and lost their posts. They were replaced by Protestant bishops, some of whom had been Marian exiles
- The Act of Supremacy gave Elizabeth control of the English Church, without explicitly describing her as its ‘Head’. This compromise satisfied those who believed a woman could not lead the Church
14
Q
when was the Act of Uniformity passed?
A
1559
15
Q
when were the Royal Injunctions passed?
A
1559
16
Q
what did the Act of Uniformity and the Royal Injunctions do?
A
the Act of Uniformity and the Royal Injunctions, both passed in 1559, imposed moderate protestant reforms on the English Church, but they also made some concessions to English Catholics
17
Q
what were some of the reforms that the Act of Uniformity and the Royal Injunctions made?
A
- going to church was compulsory - there were fines for missing a church service
- a new Book of Common Prayer was issued, which had to be used in all churches
- All parishes had to have a copy of the Bible in English
18
Q
what were some concessions that the Act of Uniformity and the Royal Injunctions made to the English Catholics?
A
- the wording of the communion service (an important Christian ceremony) was kept deliberately vague, so that it could be accepted by both Protestants and Catholics
- Churches were allowed to keep some decorations, and priests had to wear certain Catholic vestments
19
Q
how did Elizabeth make sure everyone in England was conforming to the religious settlement?
A
Royal commissioners were ordered to visit churches throughout the country to ensure that the Acts and Injunctions were being enforced
20
Q
What was the Religious Settlement designed to do?
A
The Elizabethan religious settlement made England a Protestant country, but allowed some elements of Catholic belief and practice to continue. This clever ‘middle way’ was designed to satisfy the majority of the population, who held moderate religious beliefs and were willing to make some compromises for the sake of peace and stability.
21
Q
give 3 ways in which the Church played an important role in Elizabethan society
A
- senior churchmen were involved in government - all bishops held a seat in the House of Lords, and the Archbishop of Canterbury was usually a member of the privy council
- Parish priests were often the most educated people in their communities, which made them respected and influential figures. As well as providing religious guidance, parish priests gave advice, helped to resolve disputes and played an important role in providing charitable support for the poor and elderly
- The Church helped promote national unity and obedience to the Queen. The Queen’s coat of arms was often displayed in churches, and church services included prayers for the Queen and her councillors
22
Q
give 3 challenges to Elizabeth’s religious settlement in the 1560s
A
- the puritans wanted to make the English Church more Protestant
- Many members of the Nobility continued to practise Catholicism
- Threats from abroad (France & Spain)
23
Q
How were the nobility a threat to Elizabeth’s religious settlement? What did Elizabeth do about this?
A
- a large proportion of the nobility were still Catholic. The compromises in the religious settlement won some of them around, but others refused to attend church services - they were known as recusants.
- the Catholic nobility was influential in areas outside the south-east, but especially Lancashire. They used their strong local power bases to protect Catholics and maintain their traditional religious practices
- these Catholic nobles posed a potential threat to the religious settlement - there was a risk that they might try to overthrow Elizabeth and restore Catholicism
- to minimize this threat, Elizabeth did not force the Catholic nobility to attend church services. As long as they didn’t make a public show of their beliefs, they were allowed to continue practising Catholicism.
- However the threat posed by the Catholic nobility became more serious when Mary, Queen of Scots (a Catholic claimant to the English throne) arrived in England in 1568.
24
Q
How much of a threat were France and Spain to Elizabeth’s religious settlement?
A
- There was a risk that the Catholic rulers of France or Spain might try to reverse the religious settlement and replace Elizabeth with a Catholic monarch. However, neither country was really in a position to challenge the religious settlement during the 1560s
- The threat of a French invasion was serious in the first years of Elizabeth’s reign, but faded with the start of the Wars of Religion in 1562.
- In the 1560s, Spain was facing a growing revolt in the Netherlands. To prevent an alliance forming between England and the Protestant Netherlands, Spain tried to stay on good terms with Elizabeth and avoided challenging her religious settlement
- The Catholic aspects of the settlement encouraged Catholic countries and the Pope to think that Elizabeth might eventually return to Catholicism. This helped to reduce the threat of a foreign challenge during the early years of the settlement
25
what were the French wars of religion? When did they start and when did they end? what were the consequences?
The French Wars of Religion began in 1562 and continued until 1598. This long period of civil war between Catholics and Protestants weakened France and largely removed the threat of a French invasion for the rest of the 16th century
26
Was the Pope a threat to the Religious Settlement? Did he actually do anything to hinder it?
1. the Pope had the power to excommunicate Elizabeth (expel her from the Catholic Church). This might encourage Catholic countries to invade England. It could also encourage rebellion at home by releasing Elizabeth's Catholic subjects from their duty of loyalty to her
2. However, neither France nor Spain had the military resources to invade England, and there was no clear support for a revolt against Elizabeth at home, so the Pope didn't take any action against her in the 1560s
27
Who was Mary, Queen of Scots? Why was she a threat to Elizabeth?
1. Mary was the only child of James V of Scotland. She was related to the Tudors through her grandmother, Margaret Tudor. Margaret was Henry VIII's sister, the wife of James IV and mother of James V
2. as a granddaughter of Margaret Tudor, Mary had a strong claim to the English throne. Because Mary was a Catholic, her claim was supported by many English Catholics
3. Mary became queen of Scotland in 1542 when she was just six days old. Hew mother acted as regent while Mary was raised in France
4. In 1558, when Mary was 15 years old, she married the heir to the French throne. However, her husband died suddenly in 1560, and Mary returned to Scotland
5. Mary wanted to be named as heir to the English throne, but Elizabeth was unwilling to do this. She feared that making Mary her heir would encourage Catholic plots, both at home and abroad, to overthrow her and make Mary queen.
28
Describe the circumstances leading to Mary fleeing to England in 1568
1. In 1565 Mary married the Scottish nobleman Lord Darnley. The marriage was not a happy one. Darnley hated Mary's personal secretary, David Rizzio, and became convinced that the two were having an affair. In 1566 a group of Scottish nobles, accompanied by Darnley, stabbed Rizzio to death
2. In 1567, Darnley was murdered. Many people believed that Mary and her close friend, the Earl of Bothwell, were behind the murder. Their suspicions seemed to be confirmed when Mary married Bothwell a few months later
3. Their marriage was unpopular with the Scottish nobles, who rebelled against Mary. They imprisoned her and forced her to abdicate (give up the throne) in favour of her one-year-old son, James. (however some people (including Elizabeth) thought that the Scottish nobles had no right to overthrow Mary. As a result, they didn't accept her abdication, and still viewed her as the legitimate queen of Scotland). In 1568, Mary escaped from prison and raised an army. Her forces were defeated in battle and she fled south to England.
29
What did Mary ask Elizabeth to do after she fled to england? Did Elizabeth do this?
Mary hoped that Elizabeth would help her regain control of Scotland. Elizabeth was not willing to do this - Mary's claim to the English throne meant that there would be a constant threat of invasion from the north if Mary regained power in Scotland
30
what did Elizabeth do when Mary arrived in England?
She had Mary imprisoned and set up an inquiry to investigate whether she had been involved in Darnley's murder.
31
what was the outcome of Elizabeth's inquiry into whether Mary had been involved in Darnley's murder? What had Elizabeth wanted the outcome to be? What evidence was presented at the inquiry?
- Elizabeth didn't want the inquiry to find Mary guilty. A guilty verdict would lend support to the actions of the Scottish nobles, who had overthrown Mary, their legitimate queen. However, she didn't want a non-guilty verdict either, because this would force her to release Mary. Once free, Mary might use her claim to the English throne to try and overthrow Elizabeth.
- the so-called 'Casket Letters' were presented to the inquiry. They included several letters apparently written by Mary to Bothwell, which implicated the pair in Darnley's murder. Mary's supporters insisted that the letters were forgeries, but most members of the inquiry believed they were genuine
- However, in the end, the inquiry didn't reach a verdict - this enabled Elizabeth to keep Mary in captivity. Elizabeth hoped that imprisoning Mary would prevent her becoming the centre of Catholic plots, but Mary's presence caused problems for Elizabeth throughout the next 20 years
32
describe a threat to Elizabeth during the 1570s and 1580s
during the 1570s and 1580s, there were several Catholic plots to assassinate Elizabeth and replace her with Mary. The plots involved European conspirators and were supported by France, Spain and the Pope
33
describe the events of the Ridolfi plot
1. Roberto di Ridolfi was an Italian banker who had played a small part in the Revolt of the Northern Earls. In 1571 he used his Catholic contacts in England and Europe to develop a plot to overthrow Elizabeth
2. Ridolfi planned to assassinate Elizabeth, then marry Mary to the Duke of Norfolk and make her Queen. He was supported by the Pope, and by King Philip II, who agreed to provide troops for a Spanish invasion
3. The plot failed, largely because Elizabeth's allies passed the names of the main conspirators to her. They also intercepted letters sent by Mary, which implicated her and Norfolk in the plot
4. Norfolk was arrested and executed. Mary was not punished, although her supervision was made tighter
34
when was the Ridolfi plot?
1571
35
when was the Duke of Norfolk arrested and executed?
after the Ridolfi plot
36
give 3 reasons why the Catholic plots pose a real threat to Elizabeth
1. Mary's presence in England and her strong claim to the throne made the plots seem credible and meant that they posed a real threat to Elizabeth's rule. Many people were afraid that they would be successful
2. as the head of the Catholic Church, the Pope could rally support for the plots. For some Catholics, obedience to the Pope was more important than obedience to Elizabeth
3. Foreign powers, especially France and Spain, were involved in the plots, so there was a danger they would lead to a foreign invasion
37
give three weaknesses of the Catholic plots
1. Elizabeth was a popular ruler and the conspirators lacked public support. As the failure of the Revolt of the Norther Earls had shown, there was little appetite in England for a Catholic revolution
2. Philip II was reluctant to destroy his alliance with Elizabeth. As a result, his support for the Catholic plots was half-hearted - although he promised to help the conspirators, he rarely followed through on his promises
3. Elizabeth's informants, and later Walsingham's highly efficient spy network, ensured that the plots were uncovered before they were fully developed
38
What was the relationship between England and Spain like initially, and why?
1. King Philip II of Spain had been married to Queen Mary I of England, and the two countries had fought together against France in the 1550s. The war with France ended in 1559, but Elizabeth and Philip tried to maintain good relations with each other
2. Spain's military and naval forces were much greater than England's, so Elizabeth was always reluctant to do anything that might destroy her alliance with Philip or lead to war with Spain
39
why/how did tensions start to rise between England and Spain?
1. Spain was a great imperial power. In Europe, Philip ruled Spain, the Netherlands and parts of Italy. He also had a large empire in North and South America. In 1581, Philip became king of Portugal. This gave him control of the important Atlantic port of Lisbon, as well as Portugal's overseas empire. By the 1570s, England was starting to have ambitions for an empire of its own, and hoped to become an imperial power to rival Spain
2. Philip was a very devout Catholic and dislike the Elizabethan religious settlement of 1559. He became involved in several Catholic plots against Elizabeth in the 1570s and 1580s, although his involvement in these plots was mostly reluctant and half-hearted
3. The Ridolfi Plot of 1571 damaged Elizabeth's trust in Philip and made her more willing to support the activities of English privateers
40
why was there commercial rivalry between England and spain in the Spanish Netherlands?
English exports to Europe were vital to the English economy. Many English goods reached the European market via Dutch ports, especially Antwerp (which was in the Netherlands in the 16th century). Because Spain ruled the Netherlands, Philip could limit English access to these vital Dutch ports
41
give an event that is an example of commercial rivalry in the spanish Netherlands
in 1568, Spanish ships laden with gold bullion took refuge in English ports to escape bad weather. Elizabeth seized the gold for herself, which enraged Philip. In response, Philip seized English ships in Antwerp and banned English trade with the Netherlands for a time. This damaged England's economy and caused much hardship for the English people
42
explain why the privateers traded illegally with Spanish colonies in the New World, and why Elizabeth encouraged them
1. Trade with Spain's colonies in North and South America was very profitable, but foreigners weren't allowed to trade with them unless they had a licence. Very few Englishmen were granted licences
2. Elizabeth encouraged privateers to trade illegally with Spanish colonies, raid Spanish ships and attack the treasure fleets carrying gold and silver from the Americas to Spain. Because the privateers were supposedly independent, Elizabeth could deny any responsibility for their activities. This helped to prevent open conflict with Philip
3. Elizabeth received a share of the privateers' profits. Given England's financial weakness (due to Mary's overspending and the war with France), this was a very important source of income for her. The treasure she received from Drake in 1580 was worth more than all the rest of her income for that year put together
4/ The Ridolfi Plot of 1571 damaged Elizabeth's trust in Philip and made her more willing to support the activities off English privateers
43
who were privateers?
men who sailed their own vessels (basically pirates)
44
who was Francis Drake? What did he do?
Francis Drake was a leading privateer. He was involved in several expeditions in the New World in the late 1560s and 1570s. Between 1577 and 1580 Drake sailed around the world. He carried out a number of raids on Spanish settlements andd ships, returning with huge amounts of treasure.
45
were Dudley's campaigns in the Netherlands successful?
no
46
who was appointed to lead the military expedition to the netherlands?
Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester
47
Which position did Robert Dudley accept when he arrived in the Netherlands? Why was this a mistake?
He accepted the position of Governor-General. This was a serious mistake - it suggested that Elizabeth had taken control of the Netherlands for herself, which risked provoking Philip even further. Elizabeth forced Dudley to resign the position immediately
48
When did Dudley resign his post in the Netherlands and return to England? Why?
He resigned his post in 1587 and returned to England: his campaigns of 1586-1587 had been unsuccessful. He had suffered several heavy defeats at the hands of the Spanish general, the Duke of Parma, and had no clear military successes.
49
give 5 reasons for the failure of the English campaigns in the Netherlands:
1. Dudley wasn't a talented general
2. His officers were bitterly divided over questions of strategy
3. Dudley had a very small army compared to the number of Spanish troops
4. The English army was poorly equipped
5. Elizabeth didn't provide sufficient funds to pay the English troops
50
give one way the English supported the Dutch rebels that was more effective than Dudley's campaigns?
English naval support for the Dutch rebels was more effective - a fleet of English ships patrolled the Dutch coastline, preventing the Spanish from landing some of their forces by sea
51
when did Francis Drake attack the Spanish port of Cadiz?
April 1587
52
what did Francis Drake's 1587 raid on Cadiz come to be known as? What effect did it have on Spain?
"the singeing of the King of Spain's beard", which was a major setback in Spain's preparation for the Armada
53
why did Elizabeth order the singeing of the King of Spain's beard?
- Philip saw the 1585 Treaty of Nonsuch as a declaration of war on Spain. In response, he began building a huge fleet (an Armada) that he planned to use to invade England
- Elizabeth was aware of Philip's plans. In 1587, she sent Francis Drake, one of her most successful privateers, to spy on Spanish preparations and attack their ships and supplies
54
which port did Drake choose to target in 1587? Why?
1. most of the new ships for the Armada were being built in the Portuguese port of Lisbon. This deep water port was protected by strong fortifications, and Drake knew he couldn't attack it with any hope of success
2. Instead, Drake decided to attack the port of Cadiz, which wasn't well defended. Fewer naval ships were anchored there, but the port was the centre for a large number of naval supplies, which Drake intended to seize and destroy
55
describe the events of Drake's raid on Cadiz, and the subsequent raids (the singeing of the King of Spain's beard)
1. In April 1587, Drake sailed into Cadiz harbour and began to attack the ships anchored there. He destroyed around 30 ships and seized many tonnes of supplies, including food and weapons
4. after his successful raid on Cadiz, Drake sailed along the coast of Spain and Portugal, seizing Spanish ships and destroying supplies which were being sent to Lisbon for the Armada
5. Drake also captured the San Filipe, a Spanish ship returning from the Americas laden with gold, spices and silk. Its valuable cargo easily covered the costs of Drake's expedition, and enabled Elizabeth to improve England's defences
56
what were the consequences of Drake's raid on Cadiz?
1. the raid on Cadiz had a major impact on Philip's plans to invade England, delaying the Armada by more than a year
2. Obtaining fresh supplies and weapons was very expensive and seriously strained Spain's finances
3. During his raids, Drake captured more than 1,000 tons of planks made from seasoned wood, which were needed to make the barrels used to carry food and water. As a result, the Spanish had to make their barrels from unseasoned wood, which couldn't preserve food and water very well. This caused supply problems for the Armada and affected the morale of Spanish troops and sailors. Fresh water supplies were lost and many tons of food rotted as the fleet sailed to England in 1588
57
why did Drake describe his raid on Cadiz as the 'singeing of the King of Spain's beard'?
he meant that he had inflicted temporary damage on King Philip's Armada, but hadn't destroyed it entirely - it would 'grow back' in time
58
when was the Spanish Armada complete and ready for launch?
by the spring of 1588, the Spanish Armada was complete and Philip was ready to launch his 'Enterprise of England'.
59
how big was the Spanish Armada?
The Armada was a huge fleet of around 130 ships, manned by approximately 8000 sailors and carrying an estimated 18,000 soldiers. The Spanish also had thousands more soldiers stationed in the Netherlands under the leadership of the Duke of Parma.
60
who did Philip II appoint to lead the Armada? Why? Was this a good idea?
Philip appointed the Duke of Medina Sidonia to lead the Armada. Philip respected the Duke's high social status and trusted him to obey instructions. However, the Duke had little military or naval experience, and he tried unsuccessfully to turn down the command
61
what was Philip's plan for the armada?
Philip's plan was for the Armada to meet Parma's army (stationed in the Netherlands) at Dunkirk. The combined forces would then sail across the Channel to England under the protection of the Armada's warships
62
when did the Armada reach the English Channel?
July 1588
63
describe the events of the Spanish Armada (in 8 stages)?
1. The Armada set out in May 1588, but was delayed for several weeks by bad weather in the Bay of Biscay and by the attempts of an English fleet to intercept it
2. In July the Spanish fleet was sighted off Cornwall and beacons (signal fires) were lit along the south coast to send the news to Elizabeth in London. English ships set sail from Plymouth to meet the Armada
3. The Armada sailed up the Channel in a crescent formation. This was an effective defensive strategy, which used the large, armed galleons to protect the weaker supply and troop ships
4. The English navy carried out a few minor raids, but was unable to inflict much damage. Only two Spanish ships were lost, and those were both destroyed by accident
5. Having sailed up the Channel, Medina Sidonia anchored at Calais to wait for Parma's troops. However, Parma and his men were being blockaded by Dutch ships and weren't able to reach the coast in time
6. In the middle of the night, the English sent eight fireships (ships loaded with flammable materials and set on fire) among the anchored Spanish ships. This caused panic among the Spanish sailors, who cut their anchor cables, broke their defensive formation and headed for the open sea
7. The Spanish ships regrouped at Gravelines, but the weather made it impossible for them to return to their defensive position at Calais. The English moved in, and the following battle lasted for many hours. Five Spanish ships were sunk, and the rest of the fleet was forced to sail away from the French coast and into the North Sea
8. An English fleet followed the Spanish as far north as Scotland to make sure they did not regroup and return to collect Parma's army
64
describe the Armada's journey back to Spain
1. Medina Sidonia decided to call off the attack on England and return to Spain by sailing round Scotland and Ireland. The Spanish sailors were unfamiliar with this very dangerous route, and they encountered several powerful Atlantic storms
2. Many ships sank or were wrecked on the Scottish and Irish coasts, where the local inhabitants showed the survivors little mercy. Those ships that completed the journey ran short of supplies, and many men died of starvation and disease. In all, less than half the fleet and fewer than 10,000 men made it back to Spain
65
give 3 factors that contributed to the defeat of the Armada
1. English Strengths
2. Spanish weaknesses
3. Luck
66
describe 2 ways in which English strengths contributed to the defeat of the armada
1. the English had improved their ship building, giving them several technological advantages. Spain relied on large ships which were heavy and difficult to handle, whereas the English built long, narrow ships which were faster and easier to handle. English cannons could also be reloaded much more quickly than Spanish ones
2. English tactics were more effective. Spanish ships aimed to come alongside their opponents, board their vessels and overcome the enemy in hand-to-hand fighting. The Spanish couldn't use this tactic against the English, who used their greater maneuverability to stay out of range. Instead of boarding the Spanish ships, the English fired broadsides (massive barrages of cannonballs) which could sink them
67
describe 2 ways in which Spanish weaknesses contributed to the defeat of the armada
1. Most of Spain's men lacked experience of naval warfare, whereas the English fleet was manned by experienced sailors
2. The Spanish plan to meet the Duke of Parma at Dunkirk was seriously flawed. Spain didn't control a deep water port where the Armada could anchor safely, so the ships were extremely vulnerable to an attack while it waited for Parma's troops to escape the Dutch blockade
68
describe 2 ways in which luck contributed to the defeat of the Armada
1. the death of Spain's leading admiral, Santa Cruz, in February 1588, led to the appointment of the inexperienced Duke of Medina Sidonia to lead the Armada
2. The weather made it impossible for the Spanish fleet to return to the Channel after the battle of Gravelines, forcing it to travel into the dangerous waters off the Scottish and Irish coasts
69
describe 3 ways in which England's victory in the Spanish Armada removed the threat of a Spanish invasion
1. It removed the threat of a Spanish invasion: Philip sent two further Armadas in the 1590s, but they were both unsuccessful. Although war with Spain continued for 15 years, the Armada was the last serious Spanish threat to Elizabeth's throne
2. The victory of 1588 contributed to England's development as a strong naval power to rival Spain. English ships went on many voyages of discovery and established valuable trade routes, especially with India and the Far East. By the end of Elizabeth's reign, the navy was also playing an important role in attempts to set up an English colony in North America
3. The English victory boosted Elizabeth's popularity and strengthened the Protestant cause - it was was seen as a sign that God favoured Protestantism
70
how did Education change throughout Elizabeth's reign?
During Elizabeths' reign, people increasingly began to recognise the importance of education. Many new schools were set up and more people than ever learned how to read and write
71
What was education like for young children in Elizabethan England?
Children received a basic education at home:
1. Children received their early education at home. Most parents probably taught their children how to behave correctly and gave them a basic religious education. From the age of six, all children had to go to Sunday school, where they learnt things like the Lord's Prayer, the 10 commandments and the Creed (a basic statement of the Christian faith)
2. From a young age, boys were trained in simple work skills, while girls helped their mothers with household activities
3. some children from noble households were taught at home by a private tutor (this kind of education was intended to teach children how to behave in noble society and give them the skills to be successful at court). Others were sent to live with another noble family and educated there
72
what were petty schools? who ran them/set them up?
petty schools were small, local schools that provided a basic education. Many petty schools were run by the local parish priest. Others were attached to grammar schools, or were set up by private individuals
73
how many children in Elizabethan England went to school? How was this changing?
only a small minority of children in Elizabethan England went to school, but the number was growing. Education was increasingly important for many careers, including trade and government administration.
74
what did petty schools teach? Did they have any books? what else did they use as a teaching aid?
basic reading and writing, and sometimes a little maths. There wasn't a set curriculum, although lessons usually had a strong religious focus. The schools didn't usually have any books - instead the main teaching aid was the hornbook, a wooden board showing the alphabet and the Lord's Prayer.
75
who were the pupils at a petty school?
most pupils were boys, although some petty schools admitted a few girls. There was sno fixed age for pupils to start school, but they usually started at about six and stayed until they could read and write
76
how did the number of grammar schools change during Elizabeth's reign?
there was a big increase: grammar schools had existed for centuries, but there was a big expansion during Elizabeth's reign, with the foundation of around 100 new grammar schools
77
who attended grammar schools?
- it was very rare for girls to go to grammar school - most pupils were boys from the upper and middle classes. Some schools offered free places to bright boys from poorer backgrounds, but few poor boys were able to attend because their parents needed them to work at home.
- children usually started grammar school around the age of seven
78
what was usually taught in grammar schools?
lessons focused mainly on Latin and classical literature (literature from Ancient Greece and Rome), and a few schools also taught Greek
79
who were most schools set up by?
there was no state education system at this time - instead most schools were set up by wealthy individuals
80
where did some boys go after they left grammar school?
when they left grammar school, some boys went on to study at one of the two English universities, Oxford and Cambridge.
81
did the number of prospective university students increase or decrease during Elizabeth's reign? Why?
The growing prosperity of the upper and middle classes meant that the number of university students increased during Elizabeth's reign
82
what was often studied at university, and how?
university courses were conducted almost entirely in Latin. Students studied advanced written and spoken Latin, before moving on to study arithmetic, music, Greek, astronomy, geometry and philosophy. After completing an undergraduate degree, students might specialise in law, theology or medicine
83
give 1 factor that lead to an increase in literacy levels
the printing press had been introduced to England in the late 15th century. As printing spread, it encouraged increased literacy levels because it made books much cheaper and more widely available.
84
give 5 factors that led to an increase in poverty during Elizabeth's reign
1. population growth
2. developments in agriculture
3. religious changes
4. increasing food prices - caused by population growth and several poor harvests in the 1550s and 1560s
5. the Statute of Artificers, 1563
85
why did the population grow in Elizabethan England, and how much did it grow by?
in the 16th century, England's birth rate rose and the death rate fell. This led to huge population growth - during Elizabeth's reign, the English population grew from around 3 million people to over 4 million
86
give 2 ways the population growth impacted poverty
1. food production didn't keep pace with the growth in population. As a result, food prices rose and sometimes there were food shortages
2. there was growing competition for land, and so rents increased. This trend was made worse by changes in farming practices
87
give 3 reasons for the fall in the standards of living for many workers during the Elizabethan period
1. England suffered several several poor harvests in the 1550s and 1560s. This led to food shortages and made the problem of rising food prices even worse, causing serious hardship for the poor
2. Prices for food and other goods rose much more quickly than wages. Standards of living fell for many workers as they struggled to afford the necessities - many were forced into poverty
3. in 1563 the government passed the Statute of Artificers, which set a maximum daily wage for skilled workers (e.g. butchers and carpenters). This made things even more difficult for workers, because it prevented wages from rising to match price increases
88
What did Henry VIII do that affected rising prices at the start of Elizabeth's reign?
Henry VIII's financial problems were still having a knock-on effect early in Elizabeth's reign. Henry VIII had debased the coinage - he issued coins that were not pure gold and silver, but had cheaper metals mixed in. Businessmen believed that the coinage was worth less than before, so they put their prices up. Elizabeth's government began to tackle this problem in 1560, but it still contributed to rising prices at the start of her reign
89
describe the developments in agriculture during the Elizabethan period, and explain how it affected poverty
1. traditional farming methods involved many farmers renting strips of land in large open fields. This was subsistence-level farming - each farmer only grew enough crops to supply himself and his family.
2. this kind of farming was very inefficient, and in the 16th century landowners began changing farming techniques to try and make more money from their land. Instead of sharing open fields among many farmers, they enclosed these fields to create few large farms
3. These new, enclosed farms required fewer labourers, so farmers who rented land were evicted, leaving them unemployed and homeless. These enclosures of farm land forced many people to leave their villages and migrate to towns or cities in search of work. The government viewed these migrant workers as 'vagabonds'. They feared that the growth of vagabondage would encourage riots and rebellions
90
why did the wool trade grow, and how did this affect food prices?
exporting wool to Europe was more profitable than selling grain, so many landowners stopped growing grain and began sheep farming. This fall in grain production contributed to rising food prices. It also meant that the country was more likely to suffer food shortages when there was a bad harvest
91
describe a religious change that led to less support for the poor
1. between 1536 and 1541, Henry VIII had closed down England's monasteries and sold off most of their land (this was called the 'dissolution of the monasteries')
2. The monasteries had performed important social functions, including providing support for many poor, ill and disabled people. The dissolution of the monasteries removed a valuable source of assistance for people in times of need
92
what was traditionally the main source of support for the poor? how and why did this change?
1. Traditionally, the main source of support for the poor was charity - rich people made donations to hospitals, monasteries and other organisations that helped the poor. However, during Elizabeth's reign the problem of poverty became so bad that these charitable donations by individuals were no longer enough
2. People began to realise that society as a whole would have to take responsibility for helping the poor, and so the government began to take action to tackle the problem of poverty
93
why did the government see the rising poverty levels as a threat?
the government feared that the rising poverty levels were a serious threat to law and order. As poverty levels rose, crime rates had also increased, and the government feared that the poor might rise up in rebellion if the problem of poverty wasn't tackled
94
which three categories did they split the poor into in Elizabethan times?
1. the helpless poor
2. the deserving poor
3. the undeserving poor
95
who were the helpless poor?
those who were unable to support themselves - including young orphans and the elderly, sick or disabled
96
who were the deserving poor?
people who wanted to work, but weren't able to find a job in their home town or village
97
who were the undeserving poor?
beggars, criminals and people who refused to work. Also migrant workers ('vagabonds') who left their homes and travelled around looking for work
98
who did the Poor Laws give help to?
the helpless and deserving poor
99
why and how did the government fund poor relief? (in the Elizabethan times)
because voluntary donations were no longer sufficient to fund poor relief, the government began to introduce taxes to help raise money for the poor
100
what did the 1563 Poor Law do?
- it gave magistrates the power to raise local funds for poor relief and introduced fines for people who refused to pay. However, each person was still free to decide how much they would contribute
- the undeserved poor could be publicly whipped
101
what did the 1572 Poor Law do?
- it gave local officials the power to decide how much people should pay to fund a poor relief system (for the helpless and deserving poor)
- it made the punishments for the undeserving poor harsher - they faced whipping and having a hole bored through their right ear. Repeat offenders could be imprisoned or might even face execution
101
what did the Elizabethan Poor Laws (1563, 1572, 1576) lead to - how did support improve for the poor?
by the end of the century there was a national system of taxation to pay for poor relief. These taxes were used to provide hospitals and housing for the elderly, sick and disabled. Poor children were given apprenticeships, which usually lasted at least seven years, and local authorities were expected to provide work for the deserving poor. The Poor Law of 1576 said that poor people could be sent to prison if they refused to take work
102
Which Poor Law meant that poor people could be sent to prison if they refused to take work?
the Poor Law of 1576
103
why were the undeserving poor treated so harshly?
because they were seen as a serious threat to society. Many people believed that poor criminals and vagabonds had encouraged the Revolt of the Northern Earls in 1569. The harsh punishments for the undeserving poor introduced in 1572 were probably a direct response to the Revolt
104
who were the first european countries to explore the world beyond europe? When did they start, and how much had they achieved by the time Elizabeth came to the throne in 1558?
The Portuguese and Spanish were the first to explore the world beyond Europe. In the 1400s, their fleets began to set out on voyages of discovery to Africa, the Americas and Asia. By the time Elizabeth became queen in 1558, both portugal and Spain had established many colonies in the Americas
105
when did English sailors begin to explore the world beyond Europe?
it was only from the 1560s that English sailors began to take an interest in global exploration and set out on their own voyages of discovery
106
describe how new technology made longer journeys possible and allowed exploration outside of Europe
1. Until the 15th century, most European sailors relied on coastal features to navigate. This made it impossible for them to cross oceans, where they could be out of sight for weeks at a time
2. as the portuguese and spanish began to explore the oceans, they developed more advanced navigational techniques. They learnt how to navigate by the position of the stars or the Sun using a special instrument called a sea astrolabe
3. During Elizabeth's reign, English sailors began to learn these techniques. In 1561, a key Spanish book, 'The Art of Navigation' by Martin Cortes, was translated into English. This gave English sailors detailed information about how to navigate across the Atlantic using a sea astrolabe
4. other innovations helped English sailors to navigate more accurately. From the 1570s, they began using the log and line, which helped them estimate their speed with more accuracy. In the 1590s, English navigator John Davis invented the backstaff, which was easier to use and more accurate than the sea astrolabe. there were also improvements in map-making, which made maps and naval charts more detailed and reliable
5. Improvements in ship-building also encouraged exploration. From the 1570s, the English began to build larger, longer ships. These new ships were better-suited to long ocean voyages because they were faster, more stable and easier to navigate. They could also carry larger cargoes, which made their journeys more profitable
107
give two factors that led to an increase in exploration during the Elizabethan period
1. New technology made longer journeys possible
| 2. Rivalry with Spain encouraged exploration
108
how did rivalry with Spain encourage exploration?
1. In the 1550s, English international trade was dominated by exports of woollen cloth to Europe. Most exports were traded through Antwerp, which was controlled by the Spanish. As tensions between England and Spain rose, it became increasingly difficult for English merchants to trade freely through Antwerp
2. This encouraged English merchants to make their international trade more varied. Some looked for new routes into Europe, trading with German towns or through the Baltic. Others began to look further afield, especially to the Americas and Asia
3. as the commercial and political rivalry between England and Spain grew, Elizabeth realised that England needed to compete with Spain globally, not just within Europe. She encouraged English merchants to get involved in long-distance trade and privateering, and to explore opportunities to establish English colonies in the Americas
109
explain one way in which Elizabeth encouraged the development of England's international trade
Elizabeth encouraged the development of England's international trade by granting some merchants monopolies, which gave them exclusive rights to trade in a particular part of the world. E.g. in 1577 she gave a group of English merchants called the Spanish Company a monopoly on English trade with Spain's colonies, and in 1600 she gave the East India Company a monopoly on trade with Asiaa
110
explain why English sailors became more interested in voyages of discovery
Explorers were attracted by economic opportunities:
1. Spanish trade with its colonies in the Americas was highly profitable - their treasure ships returned to England full of silver and gold. The wealth of the region attracted English sailors who hoped to get rich by trading illegally with Spain's colonies and raiding Spanish settlements and treasure ships. Some also hoped to profit by establishing English colonies in the region
2. English merchants were also keen to develop trade with Asia. Traditionally, trade in Asian luxuries like silk and spices was dominated by merchants from Venice, who kept prices very high
111
describe how English trade in Asia expanded
- Traditionally, trade in Asian luxuries like silk and spices was dominated by merchants from Venice, who kept prices very high
- From the 1570s, English explorers began to look for new routes to Asia which would enable them to bypass these Venetian middlemen. Some tried to find the so-called North West passage around the top of North America, while others sailed through the Mediterranean and then went overland to India. In 1591, James Lancaster sailed to India around the Cape of Good Hope (the southern tip of Africa)
- following Lancaster's success, the East India Company was set up in 1600 to trade with Asia. It sponsored successful trading expeditions to the region in 1601 and 1604
112
when did Francis Drake circumnavigate the globe?
between 1577 and 1580
113
was Francis Drake the first to circumnavigate the globe?
no - it was the second global circumnavigation and the first by an English sailor
114
Why did Drake circumnavigate the globe? How did he plan to make money?
Drake probably wasn't trying to sail around the world. It seems that he was sent by Queen Elizabeth to explore the coast of South America, looking for opportunities for English colonisation and trade. He almost certainly planned to make money on the expedition by raiding Spanish colonies and treasure ships
115
describe the 6 stages of Drake's journey around the world
1. Drake set out from Plymouth in December 1577
2. He successfully explored the South American coastline, raiding many Spanish settlements as he went
3. Near Lima he captured two extremely valuable Spanish treasure ships. In order to get this treasure safely home, Drake had to return by a different route - the Spanish had sent ships to intercept him off the South-American coast, so he couldn't return the way he had come
4. Drake sailed along the coast of North America. He may have been looking for the North West passage, which would have allowed him to sail around North America and back into the Atlantic
5. When this proved unsuccessful, he sailed west, across the Pacific to Indonesia. On one of the Spanish ships he captured, Drake had found two men with experience of crossing the Pacific, as well as charts for the journey. This information may have helped Drake to make the difficult and dangerous Pacific crossing safely
6. He then made his way across the Indian Ocean, round the Cape of Good Hope and back to England
116
what were the consequences of Drake's circumnavigation of the globe?
on his return to England, Drake was knighted by Queen Elizabeth aboard his ship, the Golden Hind. This royal recognition and the vast wealth that Drake brought back from the journey encouraged more English sailors to set out on long-distance journeys
117
what was Drake's ship called? (when he circumnavigated the globe)
the Golden Hind
